EPA Guide to Environmental Issues
INTRODUCTION
By choosing to read this Guide, you are showing your concern for
the environment. Many of our daily activities can potentially alter
environmental balances, but too often we ignore relationships among
people, other living creatures, and our surroundings.
Environmental protection can be most effective when complex
connections between all parts of an ecosystem and society are taken
into account. No longer can we say, "I'm too busy to be concerned
with the environmentþsomeone else can take care of it."
CITIZEN PARTICIPATION
That someone is you. Citizen participation is a key element in
environmental protection. This Guide is dedicated to the
enthusiastic interest and creative ideas of people across the
country who are concerned about the nation's environmental health.
Diverse elements of everyday life make each contribution unique.
The abilities and vision of a multitude of people need to be
applied to the public decision-making process.
INFORMATION SOURCES
Although protective laws respond to public needs, we need to
understand how laws and regulations work in real situations.
Knowing where to turn for help is sometimes as difficult as
understanding which issues are addressed by specific environmental
laws. This handbook lists federal and state agencies as well as
pertinent health, safety, and environmental laws, with brief
comments on each law's intent.
THE TERMINOLOGY PROBLEM
Discussing complex economic, technical, health, safety, and
environmental issues can be frustrating. Many environmental
conversations evolve into a series of acronyms, technical terms,
and jargon that can leave you confused unless you have been
previously involved with the issues. When words or phrases remain
undefined, dialogue is likely to be limited. With Guide to the EPA,
we try to make environmental concepts clear to all so that language
and limited access to information do not hinder public
participation.
When you see a term in bold, that word is defined in the Glossary
in the back or may refer to a specific Law or Government Agency. We
included terms and definitions relating to pollution prevention,
enforcement, regulations, community involvement, and environmental
risk. We also included a variety of technical terms and acronyms
frequently used by subject matter specialists.
Please note that many terms in the text and glossary may have
different meanings for different audiences. Definitions and
explanations presented here provide only a general understanding of
the terminology and should not be taken as full technical or legal
definitions. Although much more could be said about any topic, the
information provides the basics in non-bureaucratic English. We
hope this Guide helps you become actively involved in community
dialogue and better able to understand environmental issues.
WHERE DO I GET HELP?
Have you ever wondered where to turn for answers to environmental
problems? If so, you are not alone. In the back of this Guide we
have listed four pages of EPA and federal agency telephone numbers
and addresses, followed by two pages of Hotlines that EPA maintains
for general and specific information. But protection of the
environment is a big job. Federal, state, and local agencies
across the nation are all involved, employing thousands of citizens
who care about their health and natural resources. Every city,
county, and state networks with federal groups to share and provide
information. If the first person you contact can't answer a
specific question, he or she will know who can.
Civic and community organizations are usually helpful too. Chances
are, if you contact one group that is not involved with a
particular topic, you will be steered to the correct organization.
In some areas, environmental and other community groups have formed
coalitions for improved communications and action on specific
issues.
The literally thousands of trade and citizen groups involved in
environmental issues are far too numerous to list. Your local
telephone Yellow Pages contains a directory of many groups and
their respective telephone numbers. You should contact those groups
whose interests are similar to yours.
POLLUTION PREVENTION
One of the most encouraging environmental developments of recent
years is the trend toward preventing þ and not just treating þ
pollution. For example, scientists have found various ways to treat
wastes in order to protect the environment. Now, there is growing
realization that whenever possible, avoiding wastes altogether is
even better.
On a broad level, passage of several laws relating to the
environment helped create a climate of change. The Clean Air Act
(CAA) in 1970 and the Clean Water Act (CWA) in 1972 signalled our
nation's intent to address pollution. Many activities and programs
have followed these Acts to limit further the amounts of allowable
discharges into the environment. We now recognize that end-of-pipe
technology offers only a partial solution and fails to completely
protect the environment.
The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 takes a new approach. To avoid
pollution in the first place, manufacturers are encouraged to
modify equipment and processes, redesign products, substitute raw
materials, and make improvements in management techniques,
training, and inventory control.
Here's one example. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
is responsible for protecting people and the environment from risks
associated with all sorts of toxic chemicals. One of the best ways
to accomplish this is through pollution prevention. Before a new
chemical is marketed, EPA reviews the ingredients and intended uses
to determine potential health or environmental hazards. During the
review, EPA identifies measures aimed at reducing exposures to the
chemical. At this early stage, companies wanting to manufacture or
use the chemical can readily integrate pollution prevention
measures into their plans. If such measures will not reduce
potential risks, EPA can regulate the chemical in several other
ways.
EPA also reviews chemicals already in production. The Toxic
Substances Control Act (TSCA) Inventory lists about 70,000 existing
chemicals. Of greatest concern are 10,000 to 14,000 high-volume
chemicals for which little or no data exist. To address this large
number of chemicals, EPA systematically reviews clusters of related
chemicals and ranks them for further review or testing. Nominations
of candidates for screening come from a variety of sources,
including a federal interagency testing committee of experts.
Pollution prevention also involves waste minimization þ recycling
what we used to throw away or not generating wastes in the first
place. Many companies now are cleaning up solvents for re-use or
changing the industrial process to more efficiently use raw
materials. Likewise, scientists are developing new technologies
every year to eliminate or greatly reduce our dependence on toxic
substances. A simple example is using hot water and soap instead of
organic solvents to clean equipment.
Preventing pollution can save money in a variety of ways, and so
EPA has designed several non-regulatory, innovative pollution
prevention programs. Corporations, environmental groups, electric
utilities, and state, city, and local governments participate
voluntarily in the following:
The "33/50" Program focuses on reducing overall risk from 17
high-priority toxic chemicals. The name derives from voluntary
performance goals: participating companies pledged to reduce
emissions and transfers of these chemicals by 33% in 1992 and 50%
by 1995. The 1992 goals were surpassed a year ahead of schedule þ
more than 486 million pounds of reductions were achieved, due to
conscientious business practices.
Through the "Design for the Environment" Program, EPA is working
with specific industries to find chemical substitutes and exposure
reduction techniques. The printing and drycleaning industries are
currently piloting a voluntary shift toward using more
environmentally safe chemicals and technologies. More information
is available at 202/260-1821.
Six "Energy STAR" programs seek to prevent emissions of air
pollutants associated with climate change and acid rain, while
promoting profitable investments in energy-efficient technologies.
Information about all "Energy STAR" programs is available from
202/233-9659. You can request specific documents to be mailed or
sent by facsimile. A handy set of directions walks you through
program selections on your telephone.
In a nutshell, the "Green Lights" program encourages the widespread
use of energy-saving light bulbs and fluorescent tubes. "Green
Lights" participants are already avoiding over 95 million kilowatts
annually þ that equals $9.4 million in avoided electricity costs.
The "Energy STAR Buildings" program is a partnership effort with
business to promote energy efficiency in commercial buildings. The
program starts with membership in "Green Lights," followed by a
comprehensive building survey and tune-up. The program then
engineers increased efficiency in heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning loads and improved fans and air-handling systems.
"Energy STAR Computers" is another partnership with leading U.S.
manufacturers to save additional energy costs. Desktop computers,
monitors, and printers can "sleep" or "power down" when not in use,
cutting electricity use by over one-half. The federal government,
the largest user of computer equipment in the world, will buy only
energy-efficient computers in the future.
The "Ag STAR" Program focuses on animal waste methane which is
emitted to the air when manures ferment. Such emissions waste a
usable energy supply, produce odors, and contribute to climate
change. This innovative program recovers methane gas from swine and
dairy manure for re-use by the farmer, and looks at better
livestock nutrition. Several international projects are under way.
The "Natural Gas STAR" program is another methane recovery project
aimed at oil and natural gas pipeline leakages and system
inefficiencies. EPA is working with public utility commissions to
reform rate structures to include incentives for efficiency gains,
cost reductions, and methane emissions reductions.
The "Super Efficient Refrigerator Program" seeks to produce
energy-wise appliances for home and commercial use.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chemicals used in refrigerators for
cooling and freezing, are ozone-depleting substances that will be
phased out of production by 1995. This program is finding
alternative coolants and optimizing energy efficiency through
better compressors, door seals, and insulation.
In addition, EPA has many other new voluntary programs, some just
getting off the ground, but these three top the list:
The "Climate-Wise" Program challenges organizations from all
sectors of the economy to find creative ways to limit or reduce
greenhouse gas emissions (see climate change in the Glossary). Such
actions may include raw material substitution, process
improvements, and switching to lower-carbon-content fuels. Other
initiatives put into place employee's good ideas: planting more
trees, grasses, and plants to absorb excess carbon dioxide from the
air, carpooling, and installing corporate-wide efforts to recycle
and reduce waste. For more information, call 202/260-4407.
The "Waste-Wise" Program is a public-private partnership designed
to assist businesses in reducing their solid waste. Businesses set
their own goals and commit to achievements in the following three
areas: waste prevention, recycling collection, and buying or
manufacturing recycled products. Additional information is
available by calling 800/ EPA-WISE.
Last, but not least, is the "Water Alliance for Voluntary
Efficiency" Program, called WAVE. Designed to focus attention on
efficient use of water, WAVE encourages hotels and motels to
install water-saving devices. Use of low-flush toilets, and
low-flow shower heads, dishwashers, and laundry equipment, as well
as recycling wastewater, is both profitable and practical. The
payback period for most projects is three years or less. This
program will be expanded to more businesses, institutions, and
local governments. For more information, call 202/260-7288.
The same basic pollution prevention ideas can be used in the home.
Each of us can use energy efficient or recyclable products and
decrease our volume of waste. Contact agencies listed in the
Directory of this Guide for things you can do to prevent pollution.
In addition, bookstores and libraries typically contain information
that can help you and your family dramatically reduce þ and in some
cases eliminate altogether þ everyday sources of pollution. As our
awareness grows and we begin to realize the full health and
environmental effects our actions have, pollution prevention
becomes increasingly attractive.
SOME QUESTIONS & ANSWERS ON POLLUTION PREVENTION
Q. How does pollution prevention work?
A. Here's an example. If a chemical has been identified
as toxic to the environment and a less harmful
substance is used instead, pollution may be prevented.
By the same token, your conscientious selection of
products for the home can prevent pollution.
Q. Why wasn't pollution prevention started sooner?
A. During the industrial revolution, few people
envisioned what an enormous collective effect we would
have on the global environment. We chose first to
treat the obvious effects of pollution, not the
sources.
Q. What are some specific ways I can personally prevent
pollution?
A. Look for goods with less packaging; use
longer-lasting, full-spectrum fluorescent tubes that
require only a fraction of the energy of incandescent
bulbs; reduce your use of hazardous household
products; recycle glass, paper, plastic, cardboard,
and other materials. Many other ideas are available
from EPA, environmental groups, and trade
associations.
Q. Where can I get more information on pollution
prevention?
A. Call EPA's Pollution Prevention Office at
800/858-7378. Many states also have pollution
prevention offices with information available to the
public.
AIR & RADIATION
Perhaps more than anything else, air interacts directly and
constantly with us. All land creatures breathe gases and materials
suspended in the air. By the same token, trees, grasses and other
plant species carpeting the earth are equally dependent on clean
air. We all have a stake in the quality of our air.
Outdoor air quality is affected by many human and natural
activities. Manufacturing companies, power plants, small
businesses, automobiles, forest fires, and volcanoes are all
sources of air pollution. Any activity that releases materials into
the air affects air quality.
Although the landmark 1970 Clean Air Act (CAA) prompted large
improvements in air quality, not all of Congress' goals have been
met. Emissions of pollutants such as sulfur oxides, volatile
organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide, particulates, and lead
have been greatly reduced. But much work remains to effectively
reduce acid rain, smog, and air toxics associated with increased
cancer risk and other health complaints. The 1990 CAA Amendments
were intended to address these and other chronic air quality
problems.
These Amendments signal a change from past pollution control
approaches. Innovations in this law include programs based on
cooperation between government and industry, and pollution
prevention incentives based on market forces. The goal of the
entire Act is to reduce air pollution by 56 billion pounds per
year. These reductions are expected to come from cutting emissions
from several major as well as many minor sources.
Urban pollution also is addressed under the 1990 CAA Amendments.
Cities that fail to meet standards for human health must comply
with the standards by deadlines set in the law. In many urban
areas, ground level ozone persists in concentrations harmful to
human health. Large sources of pollutants (such as nitrogen oxides)
that contribute to this problem and smaller sources of hydrocarbons
must reduce emissions. In some cities, this requires vehicle
emissions testing, vapor recovery systems at gas stations, and
other controls on smaller sources of pollution.
Carbon monoxide problems in non-attainment areas are addressed in
a similar fashion. Areas with the worst carbon monoxide problems
are required to use special forms of gasoline known as oxyfuels
during winter months. Other areas that fail to attain standards for
particulate matter may be required to limit the use of wood stoves
and fireplaces and to impose stiffer controls on industry.
In addition, emissions of 189 air toxics must be reduced by the
turn of the century. EPA has published a list of source categories
for which Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT) is being
developed. Companies that achieve reductions of emissions before
the regulations are proposed can receive six-year extensions to
comply with the standard. EPA has estimated that overall health
risks, including risk of cancer, respiratory disease, heart
ailments, and reproductive disorders, will decline significantly
once MACT controls are installed.
The CAA Amendments also look beyond the U.S. to reduce acid rain
and address loss of stratospheric ozone. Sulfur dioxide emissions
from power plants are a major source of acid rain. Under a new
two-phase system, these emissions will be cut in half by the year
2000. Power plants will be issued emission allowances which can be
banked or traded. If emissions exceed the allowances held, the
power plant must pay a penalty. The CAA Amendments also restrict
the use, emission, and disposal of ozone-depleting chemicals such
as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs, also known as Freons) and other
chlorine- and bromine-containing compounds. CFCs are commonly used
in refrigerators and air conditioners.
Working in consultation with state and local governments, EPA bears
primary responsibility for this sweeping legislation. EPA's Office
of Air and Radiation is the lead office for developing the scores
of regulations required under the Act. States also share
responsibility for issuing and enforcing air pollution permits. In
some areas, local governments will test vehicle emissions and
monitor other air quality issues.
Indoor air is often more polluted than the air outside our homes
and workplaces. This has been shown to be true across the country,
even in neighborhoods without heavy industrial pollution. More than
90% of our time is spent indoors where we are exposed to
contaminants from faulty heating units, gas stoves, fireplaces,
cleaners, solvents, cosmetics, cigarette smoke, wall coverings,
paints, and improperly stored chemical products.
Another significant indoor health hazard results from radon gas,
which in many areas of the country seeps from the earth into homes.
There are several ways to check and safeguard your home, with
proper ventilation being one of the simplest. Radon test kits are
available from a variety of sources including hardware stores,
health departments, and environmental agencies.
In your home, make sure that gasoline cans for lawn mowers have
securely fitted lids. These items as well as household hazardous
chemicals should be stored outside the home when possible. Dispose
of unwanted or unused solvents and pesticides properly. Some stores
that sell these items will dispose of them for you. In many states,
environmental agencies in cooperation with industries have
sponsored "Household Hazardous Waste Days" during which citizens
may take paint, solvents, and other wastes to local collection
sites for proper disposal.
The quality of indoor air is largely up to individuals and
businesses. Although safe working conditions are mandated by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), no agency
forces homeowners to provide clean indoor air. You must take steps
on your own to improve the quality of indoor air in your home.
SOME QUESTIONS & ANSWERS ABOUT AIR QUALITY
Q. Whom do I call to report visible emissions or noxious
odors in the air?
A. Generally, your state or local air quality office
should be contacted. For emergencies, dial 911 or your
local fire department or public health agency. Be
aware that visible emissions are not necessarily the
most harmful; most emissions are colorless or
odorless.
Q. Who monitors the required reports of toxic air
emissions and safety measures used to control those
emissions?
A. EPA, your state air quality office, the State
Emergency Response Commission (SERC), and your Local
Emergency Planning Committee (LEPC) monitor these
reports.
Q. Who sets the legal air exposure limits for toxic
chemicals?
A. EPA sets the standards for outside (ambient) air, OSHA
for the workplace.
Q. What is Best Available Control Technology? What is
MACT?
A. Best Available Control Technology (BACT) refers to the
best equipment, techniques, or mechanisms that are
currently available to achieve a level of pollution
control. Through research, technology may be available
in the future to achieve even better controls. MACT is
Maximum Achievable Control Technology and refers to
the maximum degree of pollution reduction obtainable.
Q. What happens to toxic airborne emissions when they are
released from chemical plants, automobiles, or power
plants? Do they change into other toxics when they
mix? Where are they finally deposited?
A. We are only beginning to find out what happens to
emissions. Little is known about the interaction of
chemicals in ambient air, but some effects such as
smog, ozone depletion, acid rain, and climate change
are a few of the known consequences when air emissions
interact, are blown by the wind, and are deposited in
cities, fields, and wetlands. These effects have
generated new research to find answers.
Q. Do weather conditions affect pollution and the
dispersion of airborne chemicals?
A. Yes. Weather conditionsþincluding temperature,
sunlight, precipitation, and windþplay a major role in
how vapors and suspended particles behave. Sunlight
can destroy or alter some airborne chemicals. Rain,
snow, and wind affect where and when air pollutants
are deposited on land or water.
Q. Are incinerators a source of toxic emissions to the
air?
A Well-designed, well-constructed, and well-operated
incinerators can nearly eliminate toxic emissions to the
air. To receive a permit to operate, a hazardous waste
incinerator must demonstrate 99.99% efficiency in
destroying most hazardous wastes. The standard is even
stricter for dioxins and PCBs.
Q. How does eliminating toxic wastes at the source of
production differ from utilizing best available
control technology (BACT)?
A. Basically, at-source control is a pollution prevention
approach that seeks to keep hazardous wastes from
being produced. BACT, on the other hand, is the best
technology for treating, containing, or reducing
discharges and emissions.
SURFACE WATER
Although the vast majority of the earth's surface is covered with
water, the oceans and seas are salty. Only 3% is fresh þ and
two-thirds of that is ice! This tiny fraction of fresh water
sustains a multitude of very specific life forms, including our
own. While many people get their drinking water from underground
reserves, surface waters also are an important source. In addition,
lakes, rivers, and streams provide boating, swimming, fishing, and
other forms of recreation.
The economic support offered by plentiful and high quality surface
waters includes agricultural irrigation, process and cooling waters
for power plants, and chemical, steel, lumber, mining, and other
industrial operations. The eastern U.S. has a bountiful supply of
this natural resource, while in the western states, the relative
scarcity of surface water serves to increase its value. In all
parts of the country, however, we need to use our water
efficiently. Using less water reduces the amount of wastes
discharged into our lakes, streams, rivers, and oceans, as well as
the energy needed to treat wastewater.
The cornerstone for protecting this valuable resource and
controlling water pollution was the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act of 1972. In 1977, the Act was reauthorized and renamed the
Clean Water Act (CWA). The goal of the CWA is the "restoration and
maintenance of the chemical, physical and biological integrity of
the Nation's waters." Under this Act, it is illegal to discharge
pollutants from a point source into any surface water without a
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit. EPA
has the authority to set standards for the quality of wastewater
discharges. Amendments to the CWA in 1987 increased the ability of
EPA and states to improve water quality by addressing toxic
discharges, allowing citizen lawsuits, and funding municipal sewage
treatment facilities.
Most states have legal authority to implement and enforce the
provisions of the Clean Water Act, while EPA retains oversight
responsibilities for most state water programs. Water quality
standards, criteria to assure that streams are "fishable and
swimmable," are set by each state, with EPA oversight and approval.
State water pollution control agencies and EPA use these standards
to set limits on the amounts of pollutants that can be discharged
into surface waters. Questions dealing with specific bodies of
water, monitoring surveys, or permits should be directed to your
state water quality agency.
Wetlands occupy a specialized niche between land and surface water,
where plants and animals abound. Wetlands have historically been
viewed as mosquito-ridden wastelands, impediments to development
because of their saturated and frequently flooded conditions. The
importance to fish and wildlife, clean water, and flood control
went unappreciated as draining and filling operations destroyed
more than 60% of coastal and inland wetlands nationwide. Discharges
from industries, midnight dumping of toxic wastes, urban runoff,
acid rain, and agricultural chemicals have polluted and degraded
wetlands as well.
Wet meadows, prairie potholes, wooded swamps, and coastal,
saltwater marshes are distinctly different. But all wetlands are
important wildlife habitats, breeding grounds, and nurseries.
Hundreds of species of birds use wetlands for mating, nesting,
brood-rearing, and for resting and feeding during migration. Fish,
crustaceans, insects, and other animals form complex food chains in
these valuable ecosystems.
Some progress has been made, but a major challenge remains to
reduce and control pollutants that enter all surface waters. Water
that runs off city streets and parking lots during rainstorms may
contain metals, oil, grease, and other automotive fluids. Runoff
from agricultural fields contains animal waste, fertilizers, and
pesticides. These contaminants and others are called nonpoint
source pollution and cannot be reduced by traditional end-of-pipe
controls.
Recent stormwater regulations are beginning to reduce nonpoint
source pollution from industries and cities. Farming practices that
emphasize soil conservation and appropriate use of pesticides are
effective in reducing pollutants in runoff. You can help prevent
nonpoint source pollution by properly disposing of used motor oil,
using fewer pesticides, and carefully assessing lawn and garden
practices. By reducing the potential contaminants we place on
streets, driveways and lawns, we can make a substantial
contribution to improving the quality of rivers, streams, lakes,
and wetlands.
SOME QUESTIONS & ANSWERS ON SURFACE WATER
Q. Where can I get information about the water quality of
streams, lakes, wetlands, and other bodies of water in
my state?
A. State water quality agencies, in general, maintain
records of water quality for many state surface
waters. General information about water quality is
available through the state agency information
offices, EPA, and many citizen groups. EPA maintains
an Office of Water Resource Center to answer general
questions about standards and water quality. The
telephone number is 202/260-7786.
Q. How are water quality standards developed for U.S.
surface waters?
A. EPA develops water quality criteria that indicate
concentrations of contaminants that are not expected
to harm human health and aquatic life. States may use
these criteria to set water quality standards or they
may develop their own standards that address
state-specific needs, are scientifically defensible,
and as stringent as the national criteria. States are
required to review water quality standards every three
years. New information from EPA, industry, or any
other group concerning safe levels of materials in
surface water may be considered, and existing
standards may be revised to reflect current scientific
developments. Notices of proposed revisions are
published in newspapers to encourage the public to
participate in the revision process. State standards
must be approved by EPA.
Q. How can I find out what materials are being discharged
into local bodies of water?
A. By submitting a request to the water pollution control
agency in your state, you can review the National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits
for specific dischargers into surface water. New
permits and renewals of existing permits are published
in local papers with information on how to review the
permit application. State and federal agencies,
including EPA's Office of Water and the U.S.
Geological Survey, compile stream-specific water
quality data in various reports available to the
public.
Q. What can I do if I think that an NPDES permit should
not be issued or that the requirements of the permit
are inadequate?
A. Anyone may comment on the issuance or reissuance of an
NPDES permit within the period listed in the public
notice. The permit-issuing agency must respond to
public comments before granting the permit. Most
states have a process by which affected citizens and
companies may appeal the terms and conditions of a
NPDES permit or who receives one.
Q. Whom do I contact if I see a spill or notice unusual
conditions such as color, odor, or fish kills in a
stream, lake, estuary, or coastal area?
A. First contact your city or county public health
department or check to see if your state has a
toll-free pollution hotline. Any spill should be
reported immediately to the National Response Center
at 1-800-424-8802. For other complaints and concerns
about water quality, call your state agency
representatives during normal business hours and ask
for an investigation.
GROUND WATER
The nation's ground water resources are extremely valuable. Half of
all Americans and more than 95% of our rural population get their
household water supplies from underground sources. Ground water
also is used for about half of all agricultural irrigation and a
third of industrial water needs. In many places, this vital
resource is already contaminated or threatened.
Even more than surface waters, ground water resources are often
taken for granted because they are not visible. Rainfall and
surface water which had seeped into the earth's crust over many
years formed underground reservoirs. Where the water table is at or
close to the surface, ground water enters wetlands, lakes, rivers,
and streams and provides a base flow during dry periods. By
comparison to rivers and streams, ground water moves very slowly
and with little turbulence. Therefore, once contamination reaches
ground water, little dilution or mixing occurs. While wells and
springs in many parts of the country are abundant and supply good
quality water, contamination in other areas may be severe but
undetected until the ground water is used.
Activities to protect ground water are guided by several different
federal and state laws and are conducted by a number of different
agencies. Some states have comprehensive ground water protection
statutes, but all states have some authority to protect ground
water under solid and hazardous waste laws, public health laws, and
energy extraction laws. Regulatory authority and information about
ground water quantity and quality vary among state agencies, but
usually reside in natural resources, environmental protection, or
public health agencies.
Ground water issues in agricultural areas are the concern of a wide
variety of organizations and institutions including soil and water
conservation districts and commissions. In urban areas, local
public works and planning departments can often respond to
questions about the effects of land disturbance on ground water.
Federal statutes that authorize ground water protection include the
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA), and the Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA, or Superfund law). On the
federal level, EPA has primary responsibility for ground water.
As an individual, you can help protect your community's ground
water. Use and dispose of household hazardous substances properly.
Reduce your use of these hazardous substances whenever possible.
When you do have pesticides, cleaning products, and paint to
dispose of, don't pour these products down the drain, put them in
the trash, or dump them on the ground. Hazardous substances
disposed of in these ways can find their way into both surface and
ground water. Reducing home water use also will reduce ground water
contamination.
Household products that are hazardous materials may be recycled.
Check with local gas stations and automotive centers about
recycling used motor oils and batteries and with paint stores for
leftover paints and solvents. In many communities, businesses and
government agencies sponsor annual Household Hazardous Waste Days
when citizens can bring household chemicals to a central spot for
collection, proper treatment, and/or disposal.
SOME QUESTIONS & ANSWERS ON GROUND WATER
Q. How is ground water contaminated?
A. Ground water may become contaminated when rainfall and
surface runoff pass through contaminated soil. Water
dissolves many substances and can carry particles and
microorganisms with it into the ground water. Landfills,
mining, improperly applied pesticides, improperly stored
chemicals and de-icing salts, leaking underground storage
tanks, improperly installed or failing septic tanks, and
other surface activities can significantly alter ground
water quality. Contamination often goes undetected for many
years.
Q. If I notice a change in the taste, color, or odor of
my well water, whom should I contact?
A. You should contact your county health department,
state agency with ground water responsibility, and
state health department. These agencies can
investigate the cause of the change in your well
water. In addition, information on ground water may be
obtained by calling EPA's Safe Drinking Water Hotline
(800/426-4791) or the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
(703/648-4460).
Q. What should I do if I suspect that a nearby facility
may be contaminating my well and the ground water?
A. You should contact the agencies listed above.
Depending on the circumstances, they may be able to
help you. You might also contact the state agencies
that issue environmental permits to the facility;
permits can be reviewed by the public.
Q. Can contaminated ground water be cleaned up?
A. In some situations, yes. Contaminated reservoirs that
are limited in size may be cleaned up by pumping water
out of the aquifer for treatment by above-ground
treatment systems. Also, methods are under development
to treat ground water in the subsurface, such as
biodegradation. However, ground water cleanup is very
difficult, expensive, and less than completely
effective. Preventing ground water contamination is
more practical to ensure good water quality.
Q. Are permits required for water supplies and sewage
treatment systems?
A. Yes. State health and environmental agencies are
responsible for certifying the adequacy of municipal
water supplies and sewage treatment systems.
Q. What is the relationship between ground water and
surface water?
A. Surface water seeps into ground water during wet
weather periods and the reverse occurs during drought
conditions. When close to the surface, ground water
often becomes surface water in the form of springs,
wetlands, and streams. Contamination of ground water
can pollute surface water and vice versa.
Q. Are underground storage tanks (USTs) regulated?
A. Yes. In 1988, EPA issued regulations setting minimum
standards for new tanks and requiring owners of
existing tanks to close, replace, or upgrade them.
Tank owners and operators are required to meet leak
detection requirements and to show they have financial
resources to pay for cleanups should a leak or spill
occur.
EPA estimates that there are from 5 to 7 million USTs
nationwide. Most of the USTs hold petroleum and the rest
hold hazardous materials, used motor oil, or other
substances.
Q. Who runs the UST program and who should be notified if
a leak is suspected?
A. State and local governments oversee the UST program.
Report suspected leaks to the state implementing
agency. Contact the RCRA/Superfund/UST Hotline at
800/424-9346 for the name, address, and telephone
number of the agency in your state.
PESTICIDES
Few chemicals have had as much effect or been the subject of as
much controversy in recent decades as pesticides. Broadly defined,
a pesticide is any agent used to kill or control undesired insects,
weeds, rodents, fungi, bacteria, or other organisms. Pesticides are
used on food and feed crops, lawns and golf courses, in schools, in
the home and other buildings, and to disinfect swimming pools and
hospital equipment. Because of their wide application, EPA
"registers" (licenses) thousands of pesticide products in the U.S.
No pesticide may legally be sold or used unless the chemical's
label bears an EPA registration number.
EPA must ensure that these pesticides will not present unreasonable
risks to people, wildlife, fish, and plants, including endangered
species. Under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Act (FIFRA) and its 1988 Amendments, the chemical's benefits must
outweigh the risks. FIFRA gives EPA the authority to limit the
amount of pesticide applied, restrict the frequency or location of
application, or require the use of specially trained, certified
applicators. EPA also can suspend or cancel the registration if
later information shows that use of the pesticide poses
unacceptable health effects.
Pesticide registration decisions are based primarily on EPA's
evaluation of test data provided by applicants. Testing is needed
to determine whether a pesticide can cause adverse effects,
including acute toxic reactions, skin and eye irritations, cancers,
birth defects, and reproductive system disorders. Data on how a
pesticide behaves in the environment also is required. This
information lets EPA determine whether a chemical poses a threat to
ground water or to "non-target" species (other than those the
pesticide is meant to control).
Many of us are concerned about food safety but don't understand how
crops are raised or how our fruits and vegetables arrive at grocery
stores. We seem to have an abundance of fresh produce every day,
regardless of what is "in season." Advances in technology over the
years have ensured bumper crops of many fruits and vegetables, and
what we don't grow in this country we import from abroad.
Pesticides can be registered or re-registered under FIFRA for use
on our food or feed crops only if "tolerances," or maximum legal
limits, for residues are established under the Federal Food, Drug,
and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA). These tolerances help ensure that
consumers (especially infants and children) are not exposed to
unsafe levels of pesticides remaining in or on their food. EPA sets
a tolerance only if chemical and toxicological data, as well as
residue and food consumption data, show no unreasonable risk to
consumers from eating foods containing low-level residues of the
pesticideþeven over an entire lifetime.
EPA also is working to develop and maintain programs that will
protect world health and the global environment from adverse
effects of pesticide use. A major objective is to improve foreign
countries' abilities to meet our standards for food safety while
improving their own citizens' health. EPA's Office of Pesticide
Programs is working to prohibit the export of pesticides that are
banned from use in the U.S. because we may be importing fruits and
vegetables grown and harvested with these same chemicals. Likewise,
use of banned pesticides or improper application may lead to
contaminated topsoil and ground water, and may have lasting adverse
effects on wildlife in these other countries.
In addition, EPA is making a concerted effort to safeguard
farmworkers in the U.S. through a combination of educational,
regulatory, and research programs. Many farmworkers are
non-English-speaking immigrants who are unable to read instructions
or warnings on product labels. These applicators must contend with
many insect and weed species that have become resistant to
insecticides and herbicides, necessitating higher doses and
increased applications. In the last 40 years, pesticide use has
increased 10-fold, yet crop loss has almost doubled. Many farmers
and ranchers have come to question the benefit of pesticides and
started practicing alternative farming methods.
Some of these methods are embodied in the concept of sustainable
agriculture, which was officially recognized by Congress when the
Organic Foods Production Act was passed as part of the 1990 Farm
Bill. This law required the U.S. Department of Agriculture to
develop national organic certification standards and labeling
requirements for crops that are organically grown. USDA is being
advised by a National Organic Standards Board composed of farmers,
processors, scientists, and environmentalists. USDA will be
publishing regulations that list synthetic and natural substances
and biochemicals that will be permitted or prohibited in organic
production. Any formulated products must be registered with EPA.
As a consumer, you can remove pesticide residues by thoroughly
washing your fruits and vegetables with soap and water. If you feel
you need to use a pesticide in your home, first seek advice from
local professionals. Many nurseries, hardware stores, and garden
centers have staff who are knowledgeable about the best product to
use and how to apply the chemical. You may not need a pesticide at
allþsometimes cleaning or removal of objects attracting a "pest"
are all that is necessary. Take special precautions to apply the
chemical exactly according to the label instructions. Wear
protective clothing indicated on the label over hands and face and
keep all containers isolated from children or pets. Close off rooms
to children and pets when a pesticide has been applied, and never
use a pesticide close to your face.
Outdoors, be aware that pesticides also can kill many beneficial
insects as well as birds and squirrels. Some chemicals are
unusually persistent, meaning residues are left in the environment
for long periods of time, even years. Watch for "Household
Hazardous Waste Disposal Days" in your community to bring any
unused amounts or empty containers for proper disposal. Because of
their inherent nature, all pesticides, including home, lawn, and
garden pesticides, are potentially toxic and should be used with
the utmost care.
SOME QUESTIONS & ANSWERS ON PESTICIDES
Q. Are there any alternatives to using pesticides?
A. Yes. Scientists have begun to manage, rather than try
to eradicate, certain species using Integrated Pest
Management (IPM). IPM uses a combination of
biological, cultural, and genetic control methods,
with use of pesticides as the last resort.
Understanding a species' life cycle is essential to
reduce the use of pesticides. Population explosions
can be prevented and reptiles, birds, bats, and
predator insects used as natural pest controls. A
sustainable farm ecosystem provides habitat for a
multitude of beneficial organisms which maintain the
pest-predator balance.
Q. What natural controls can I use in my garden?
A. Many garden shops and nurseries have resident experts
on this topic, as do county extension services. Some
common methods include planting marigolds to repel
asparagus beetles. Beer or vinegar in a shallow pan
readily attracts and traps slugs and snails. Gypsy
moths on oak and ornamental trees can be controlled by
a common bacterial spray applied at the hatching and
early larval stages (a form of IPM). In addition,
several soaps are on the market that are pest-specific
and biodegradable.
Q. How can I get rid of cockroaches in my kitchen?
A. Mix equal parts of powdered sugar and powdered boric
acid, obtainable from any hardware store. Sprinkle in
corners and along baseboards. Find points of entry and
seal them off. Store food in sealed containers and
keep the kitchen clean. At night, drain your sink and
wipe dry. Cockroaches are dependent on water, so check
for small leaks under the sink and seal.
Q. What does organically grown mean?
A. Growing organically is an alternative approach that
views the farm as an agro-ecosystem. The key principle
is biodiversity, first accomplished by building a
balanced, fertile soil rich in microorganisms. This
concept of "feeding the soil, not the plant" imparts
resistance and vigor to the crops grown. A diversity
of crops are grown in a long period of rotation,
particularly grasses and legumes for animal forage and
green manures. Such rotations break pest life cycles,
improve soil fertility, and reduce soil erosion. In
addition, the natural resources on the farm such as
forests, wetlands, and meadows are viewed as critical
resources for climate and water management and provide
habitat for indigenous species.
Certified organic crops can be harvested after three
continuous years since the last application of a prohibited
pesticide or fertilizer. But organically grown does not
mean "no spray." Farmers can use naturally derived
pesticides that break down quickly in the environment; some
wash off with rain. Other synthetically derived materials
that can be used include toxins from bacteria, soaps, fish
emulsions, vitamins, minerals, and certain medicines for
livestock. In practice, livestock must be fed organically
grown grains and forages, and can receive no hormones,
antibiotics, or medications that increase growth or
production.
Q. What pesticides are banned in the U.S.?
A. Over the years, EPA has banned 42 different
pesticides, including aldrin, DDT, dinoseb, and vinyl
chloride. Others are called restricted-use, meaning
they must be applied by or under the direct
supervision of a certified applicator. Banned or
restricted chemicals are acutely toxic to farmworkers
and applicators, as well as various mammals, birds,
and aquatic animals, and have environmental effects
long after suspended use.
HAZARDOUS WASTE
Today's world is complex þ sophisticated technologies produce
consumer goods ranging from cars to cleaning fluids. Many of these
processes generate hazardous wastes of one sort or another.
Hazardous wastes are specifically identified by EPA because they
have characteristics that make them potentially dangerous.
Hazardous wastes include chemicals that are corrosive, flammable,
reactive, or toxic. Hazardous wastes may be by-products of
manufacturing processes or discarded consumer products, such as
household cleaning fluids, paints, and batteries.
Once generated, hazardous wastes require proper storage, treatment,
and disposal. While major industries must follow specific
regulatory requirements for handling hazardous wastes, many
companies are instituting pollution prevention techniques that
reduce the amounts of wastes that are generated. Individual
citizens also should try to reduce the amounts of chemicals used.
When we must discard hazardous materials such as pesticides and old
paint, we should follow proper disposal practices to protect our
environment.
Currently operating industries that produce hazardous wastes are
regulated by the provisions of the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA). One of the RCRA requirements is the
cradle-to-grave reporting system that tracks hazardous wastes from
the factory through transportation, treatment, and disposal. Most
states have received authority from EPA to regulate and enforce
RCRA; EPA controls hazardous waste storage, treatment, and disposal
in those states that do not have this authority.
In addition to active facilities regulated under RCRA, some sites
have abandoned hazardous wastes for which ownership is unclear or
unknown. In these situations, control and cleanup is possible
through the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act (CERCLA), commonly known as Superfund. Under the
Superfund program, EPA has the authority to clean up the nation's
worst hazardous waste sites using money from a trust fund supported
primarily from a tax on chemical feedstocks used by manufacturers.
Those sites have been placed on EPA's National Priorities List
(NPL). Companies or individuals responsible for the wastes are
identified by EPA, if possible, and made to pay for the cleanups.
Your participation as a concerned community member is an integral
part of the Superfund cleanup process. The Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986 specifically provided for public
participation in selecting the appropriate remedies for site
contamination problems. EPA assigns staff to each Superfund site to
work with the local community to reach decisions related to site
cleanup activities. EPA is required to make site-related
information accessible to the public. In most cases, this
information and records of EPA decisions about the site are placed
in the public library or town hall.
Communities near Superfund sites have numerous resources available
to them for meaningful participation in the management and cleanup
of the site. For example, technical assistance grants (TAGs) from
EPA are authorized under SARA. These grants allow communities to
hire experts to help citizens understand the technical aspects of
hazardous waste problems.
SOME QUESTIONS & ANSWERS ON HAZARDOUS WASTE
Q. What should I do if I suspect hazardous waste dumping?
A. Contact the National Response Center at 1-800-424-8802 if
you detect signs of illegal dumping such as:
o drums in the woods, on roadsides or abandoned
property, in empty buildings or city or county
landfills;
o odors that smell like turpentine, paint,
fingernail polish, glue, rotten eggs, or any
unfamiliar chemical odor;
o discolored soil with dead vegetation along
roadsides, in abandoned lots or fields, around
vacant buildings, or beside streams and rivers;
o abandoned warehouses or factories with leaking
drums or waste-like material;
o sludge-like appearance or ooze on the ground.
Q. Are hazardous substances regulated under RCRA?
A. No. RCRA only regulates hazardous substances once they
become wastes, but some hazardous substances are regulated
under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) or by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Many
hazardous chemicals must be reported to federal, state, and
local officials under the Emergency Planning and Community
Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA).
Q. Can hazardous wastes be incinerated safely? Does
incineration make hazardous wastes non-hazardous?
A. A hazardous waste incinerator that is properly designed and
operated to meet performance standards set by EPA can
safely and effectively reduce or destroy a wide variety of
hazardous wastes. Depending on the composition of the
hazardous wastes, some wastes can be rendered
non-hazardous. The residues left after incineration, such
as ash and materials from air pollution control equipment,
must be properly managed and disposed of in accordance with
EPA requirements.
Q. Why are new commercial incinerators being built?
A. Federal legislation mandated each state to provide, by
October 17, 1989 a 20-year plan to assure that the state
had the capacity to dispose of hazardous and solid wastes
generated within its borders. Most hazardous wastes cannot
be landfilled and some must be incinerated because they
have no other disposal method. In addition, many states
simply have no available landfill space, and so municipal
solid waste, including household garbage, must be
incinerated. But many new facilities are waste-to-energy
plants which convert the heat from combustion into
electricity for the community, an added bonus to
eliminating tons of trash.
Q. How are citizens assured that permitted hazardous waste
facilities are complying with the law?
A. Hazardous waste inspectors have the right to enter a
facility at any reasonable time for an inspection, which
may be unannounced. Facilities are inspected for compliance
with laws and regulations, as well as with the specific
conditions of their individual permits. When violations are
found, they are followed by appropriate actions, ranging
from issuance of a non-compliance notice to initiation of
a criminal investigation. If you have reason to believe
that a hazardous waste facility is not complying with the
law, call your state environmental office with
responsibility for hazardous waste. A complaint filed with
the agency may result in an unannounced inspection of the
facility.
Q. What is the difference between hazardous waste management
and treatment?
A. Hazardous waste management refers to the precautions taken
to reduce the dangers of handling or disposing of hazardous
wastes. Hazardous waste treatment refers to practices which
render the wastes non-hazardous or less harmful. Treatment
methods include neutralization, such as mixing acids with
bases to make their pH more like that of water, biological
treatment to break the waste down into simpler compounds,
and incineration.
Q. What is being done to reduce hazardous wastes?
A. Better manufacturing processes and worker training are
reducing quantities used and non-hazardous or less
hazardous ingredients are being substituted in processes.
Some wastes are refined and recycled; others are
immobilized so they cannot be released into the
environment. Another important way is to design
well-managed, well-regulated hazardous waste management
facilities with proper state permits.
Q. Officials in my area have just declared an old abandoned
property in my community a Superfund site. What does that
mean?
A. Under CERCLA, abandoned hazardous waste sites that pose an
immediate threat can be cleaned up under emergency response
and removal programs. Sites that do not pose an immediate
danger but have significant contamination may be cleaned up
by responsible parties or under federal or state
investigation and cleanup programs.
Q. Shouldn't the folks who put the chemicals in the dump pay
for the cleanup?
A. Yes. Using Superfund enforcement authority, EPA locates the
owners, operators, generators, and transporters and
negotiates for the cleanup. Those who contributed only
minimal amounts or low-toxicity wastes (de minimis parties)
can 'cash out', putting their proportional share of costs
into a trust fund for the cleanup. Or EPA can order
non-cooperative parties to conduct the work. Cleanup
doesn't have to wait until legal and financial issues are
resolved. EPA can stabilize the site and then pursue
responsible parties to recover costs and commit to
long-term remedial actions.
Q. How do I dispose of household hazardous wastes, such as old
pesticides, paints, acids, cleaners, and used oils?
A. Watch your newspaper for local 'Household Hazardous Waste
Disposal Days.þ Often local organizations or businesses, in
cooperation with state environmental agencies, will sponsor
free disposal if you bring your materials to a specified
collection site. Public service announcements on television
and radio also help to promote such events. In addition,
some local gas stations recycle used motor oils and old
automobile batteries.
The best way to deal with household hazardous wastes is to
purchase products wisely. Estimate your needs accurately
and buy the smallest quantity possible.
SOLID WASTE
Solid waste continues to receive a great deal of media attention
across the country as cities and counties deal with the lack of
available space to dispose of household garbage and municipal
solid waste. How to manage our wastes has been a problem for
decades. In the early 1960s, cities and towns across the country
practiced open air burning of trash. In response, Congress passed
the Solid Waste Disposal Act in 1965 as part of the amendments to
the Clean Air Act. This was the first federal law that required
environmentally sound methods for disposal of household, municipal,
commercial, and industrial waste.
In 1970, Congress amended this law and passed the Resource Recovery
Act, the first nationwide recycling initiative. Federal agencies
were recycling high-grade white paper and newsprint with the
slogan, "Use it Again Sam." The beverage industry at this time
switched from tri-metal to the lighter but more expensive aluminum,
primarily to save transportation and equipment costs. That switch
paved the way for other major recycling efforts and created a
demand for "post-consumer" materials.
But the early days of the "sanitary" landfill fouled ground water,
soil, surface water, and air because of improper disposal methods.
Engineers have since designed new liners and leachate treatment
systems to prevent environmental degradation. Today, landfill
space is at a premium. Other options include incineration,
recycling, source reduction, and biodegradation as viable
alternatives to solid waste disposal.
Each of us is part of the problem as well as the solution. From gum
wrappers to used cars, we exert our personal choices in what we
purchase, how we use the product, and how we dispose of the waste.
Simple solutions include purchasing goods with less packaging,
maintaining and repairing household appliances, and carrying
reusable shopping bags. Recycling newspapers, aluminum cans, glass,
and some plastics is becoming more common at schools and the
workplace. Even if your town does not have a recycling program, you
can effectively reduce waste while conserving raw materials and
energy. Yard and food wastes make up at least 25% of materials
heading for landfills. But making compost of these wastes replaces
soil nutrients and commercial fertilizers when placed in the
garden. Removal of these materials from household garbage also
extends the useful life of existing landfills.
SOME QUESTIONS & ANSWERS ABOUT SOLID WASTE & WASTE DISPOSAL
Q. How do we dispose of solid wastes?
A. In 1990, more than 67% of our wastes were landfilled. We
recycled about 17% and the balance (16%) was incinerated.
Q. How is out-of-state garbage regulated?
A. Current legal readings of interstate commerce laws suggest
that a state, in general, cannot flatly refuse to accept
out-of-state waste. In other words, wastes exported to your
state may be restricted only to the degree in-state wastes
are restricted. For example, if in-state or county
mandatory recycling laws are enacted to require separation
of waste into recyclable and non-recyclable components,
out-of-state waste can be restricted in a similar manner.
Q. What goes into a solid waste landfill? What happens to it
over time?
A. In 1990, on average, the solid waste that went into a
typical municipal landfill was estimated to contain 38%
paper; 18% yard waste (trimmings, leaves, etc.); 8% metals;
7% food; 7% glass; 6% wood; 8% plastics; and 8%
miscellaneous. Biodegradable materials may decompose over
many years, while non-degradable materials, such as glass
and most plastics, remain at the site.
Q. When rainfall leaches through an unlined landfill, how is
ground water affected?
A. Leachate can contain a variety of substances depending upon
the contents of the waste, including metals, organic
compounds, suspended particles, and bacteria. If toxic
wastes are deposited in the landfill, the leachate can
contain toxic chemicals that are hazardous even at low
levels. Many of these substances pollute the ground water.
Most leachates are collected at permitted landfills and
treated at local sewage treatment plants. Treatment can
include aeration to eliminate volatile compounds and gases
and to enhance oxygen-dependent breakdown of organics,
settling or filtering to remove sediment, and other
treatment to stimulate chemical or microbial breakdown of
contaminants.
Q. Are hazardous wastes disposed of in landfills?
A. Both hazardous and solid waste regulations prohibit
disposal of hazardous waste in a landfill that is not
specifically designed and permitted. Nevertheless, we
generate a great deal of hazardous wastes in our homes that
we unwittingly dispose of daily. For example, pesticides
and paint thinners may be tossed in trash taken to the
landfill. Most businesses are regulated and monitored for
their hazardous waste disposal practices. Although some
people and companies illegally put hazardous wastes in
landfills, heavy penalties including fines and jail
sentences make illegal disposal very unattractive.
Q. How do we know that infectious hospital wastes are not
going into landfills?
A. Only non-infectious hospital waste can be legally dumped in
a non-hazardous waste landfill. Hospitals operate under
regulations that specify disposal requirements for medical
wastes. Violations of these rules can subject hospitals to
substantial penalties.
Q. How is the volume of waste entering a landfill regulated?
A. Generally, the volume of waste accepted is set in the terms
of the landfill permit, usually as tons per month. The
landfill operator weighs the waste upon arrival, and
tonnage reports must be submitted on a periodic basis to
state environmental agencies.
Q. How close can a landfill be to my house?
A. State and local regulations may require that a landfill be
a minimum distance from an occupied dwelling unless written
permission to be closer is given by the occupant. A common
distance is 500 feet.
Q. Won't a landfill attract pests such as rats, flies, and
cockroaches?
A. At the end of each day, a landfill is required to be
covered with a layer of soil to deter scavenging animals.
If the cover is properly applied, these pests should be
less of a problem.
Q. How will a landfill affect my well water? Who can check my
water to be sure it remains unpolluted?
A. Some state and local regulations require a landfill to be
located a minimum distance (in some states, at least 1,200
feet) from a well water supply. Monitoring wells required
around the landfill aid in the detection of ground water
contamination before it reaches the drinking water well.
Monitoring reports are usually available upon request from
the county government, state environmental agency, or your
local health department, or county extension service.
If a well owner desires testing of a well, a certified
laboratory should be hired to run the tests. Names of such
laboratories can be obtained from your local health
department.
Q. How is a landfill closed? Are there any possible uses or
restrictions for a closed landfill?
A. A landfill that reaches capacity is covered with a
multi-layer, protective cap and planted with grasses and
other ground covers. The owner must then conduct
post-closure care, which includes monitoring of ground
water, landfill gases, and leachate collection systems.
Monitoring may be required for 30 years following closure.
Few restrictions exist on how the property over a closed
landfill can be used. Parks and golf courses are examples
of possible uses. Construction of large buildings is
usually avoided because of settling that occurs during
biodegradation and compaction of the waste.
PUBLIC HEALTH
Society's earliest historical records reveal that public health
problems have been associated with life in large communal groups.
Early writers documented such epidemic diseases as cholera, plague,
and polio, and attributed them to crowded living conditions in
cities and villages. Epidemics were later traced by scientists and
physicians to lack of sanitation and disease-carrying organisms.
With these discoveries, public health agencies emerged to prevent
such occurrences by building sewers and water purification plants.
Innoculation campaigns continue through modern times.
Public health research today addresses the more difficult cause and
effect relationships behind cancer, leukemia, and birth defects.
Citizen participation in these investigative activities through
questionnaires and providing illness and lifestyle information
greatly assists in the effort. But minority and low-income
communities are often characterized by poor health and lack of
education, two factors that exacerbate exposure to toxic
substances. EPA has committed to address environmental justice
concerns by bringing people of all races, cultures, incomes, and
educational levels into the mainstream of environmental laws,
regulations, and policies.
A major public health issue today is exposure to lead. Elimination
of leaded gasoline has reduced air-borne exposure for the general
population. But threats remain for children, who are most
susceptible to the adverse effects of lead. In many homes, lead
from old pipes and solder may dissolve into the water. If you have
plumbing that was installed before the early 1950s, you can reduce
your exposure to lead by letting the tap run for a few minutes. Use
only cold water for cooking or drinking.
Another avenue of exposure to small children, and perhaps the
greatest, is through lead paint in older housing. Small children
tend to stick almost anything in their mouths. If a child swallows
chips of lead-based paint, exposure to lead is increased. To help
protect small children, the Consumer Product Safety Commission no
longer allows the sale of paints with high levels of lead. The
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention suggests that paint
already existing inside and outside of buildings be tested for
lead. If the lead content is high, the paint should be removed in
a safe manner and replaced with a lead-free paint.
State health departments often oversee public water supplies and
private septic tanks in addition to duties associated with food
safety. Many states maintain registries of diseases such as cancer
and birth defects. Studying patterns of incidence may help identify
causes and allow public health agencies to target resources on high
risk diseases, behaviors, or locations. The Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC), an arm of the U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services (HHS), conducts research on the causes of
disease and tracks the progression of infectious and other
diseases. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
(ATSDR) is a part of the Public Health Service in HHS. The mission
of ATSDR is to protect the public from exposure to hazardous
substances in the environment. See Government Agencies section.
SOME QUESTIONS & ANSWERS ON PUBLIC HEALTH
Q. Where can I find information about disease rates in my
community?
A. In many states, the state health department may have a
registry of diseases such as cancer. A call to your state
health department should let you know if the registry can
give you information specific to your community. Your local
health agency may also be aware of research that may have
been performed in your community by universities or other
researchers.
Q. Do chemical companies and other industries keep track of
employees' cancer and respiratory illnesses and deaths?
A. Many large companies do. Some companies keep extremely
detailed medical records on employees. Larger companies may
have an epidemiologist who studies the incidence of disease
in workers. Smaller companies may not have as detailed
medical records on employees and may not keep them for
long.
Q. Whom do I call about suspected contamination of my public
water supply?
A. The water pollution control agency or public works
department in your county or state has an office dealing
with the safety of public water supplies. Ask them for the
office to contact with questions and concerns.
COMMUNITY SAFETY
Every day, oil and hazardous substances are spilled or released
into our harbors and waterways, onto the ground, and into the air.
Some of these incidents are relatively minor, some cause
disruptions in the community, and others cause serious damage and
take lives. Most such incidents are handled at the local level, by
fire fighters, police, and emergency medical teams. In many cases,
the owner or operator of a facility will handle the cleanup or
provide help to local responders, sometimes in the form of
technical advice or a trained hazardous materials team.
Some serious incidents, however, warrant activation of the National
Response System. When the person in charge of a facility or vessel
containing a hazardous substance becomes aware of a release in a
reportable quantity, that person must notify the National Response
Center (NRC) at 1-800-424-8802. Reportable quantities have been
established for 779 hazardous substances. Similarly, a discharge
or spill of oil that causes a discoloration or "sheen" on the
surface of the water must be reported.
The NRC is the primary communications center for reporting major
chemical and oil spills and other hazardous substances into the
environment. Operated by the U.S. Coast Guard since 1972, the NRC
receives reports of transportation emergencies, oil and hazardous
substance spills, and other chemical accidents. The NRC relays
information to a predesignated federal On-Scene Coordinator (OSC),
based on the incident's geographical location. Coastal and tidal
waters fall under Coast Guard jurisdiction; EPA manages inland
waterways and spills on land; the Departments of Defense and Energy
manage incidents on their respective properties.
When the federal OSC receives a call, he is backed up by Special
Forces: the U.S. Coast Guard's National Strike Force (NSF)
composed of three teams: Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts; EPA's
Environmental Response Team; and the NOAA Scientfic Support
Coordinators. EPA's 10 regional offices each have a team of OSCs
and direct responders who can access any of the Special Forces for
assistance. The OSC in turn contacts state and local agencies to
coordinate their role.
State Emergency Response Commissions (SERCs) administer community
safety programs and appoint Local Emergency Planning Committees
(LEPCs) in all major cities and every county. LEPC members include
state or local officials, police, fire, public health,
environmental, hospital, and transportation officials, as well as
community groups and the media. The Emergency Preparedness
Coordinator at the county level is usually the chairperson of the
LEPC and has a listed telephone number, although large cities
frequently have a separate LEPC.
The key statute directing all of these federal and state activities
is the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA). When CERCLA was amended in 1986 by
the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), Title III
of SARA authorized the Emergency Planning and Community
Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA). This law is based on the premise that
citizens have a right to know about chemicals in their communities.
EPCRA has two main purposes: to encourage planning for responses
to accidents, and to provide the public and the government with
information about possible chemical hazards in communities.
Section 313 of EPCRA requires certain manufacturers (those in
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Codes 20-39) to report to
EPA and the states the amounts of over 300 toxic chemicals and 20
chemical categories that they release directly to air, water, or
land, inject underground, or transfer to off-site facilities. In
addition, EPCRA specifies that EPA must compile these reports into
an annual inventory of releases and transfers þ the Toxic Release
Inventory (TRI) þ and make that inventory available to the public.
In October of 1990, Congress passed the Pollution Prevention Act,
requiring all TRI facilities to provide information on pollution
prevention and recycling efforts for each chemical on their
reporting forms beginning with the 1991 reporting year. Information
includes quantities recycled, source reduction practices, and
changes in production. EPA recently added two chemical categories
and 32 additional chemicals that require reporting.
By the end of 1994, EPA will add 313 priority pollutants to the
list, including acutely toxic chemicals, flammable gases and
liquids, explosives, and pesticides. Small-source exemptions will
be proposed at that time. In early 1995, TRI reporting will be
extended to treatment plants for drinking water, utilities, mining
companies, propane retailers, and other nonmanufacturing industries
associated with significant chemical releases.
These right-to-know efforts have been enhanced by a 1994 Executive
Order committing EPA and other federal agencies to environmental
justice for minority and low-income populations. Efforts to educate
and empower citizen groups, native Americans, and new immigrants to
our shores will ensure early participation in environmental
decision making, form partnerships, and promote sustainable
communities.
Another law intended to improve public safety is the Hazardous
Materials Transportation Uniform Safety Act (HMTUSA). Under this
law, local emergency planners and responders can receive grants and
technical assistance from the federal government to help
communities deal with the risks from transporting hazardous
materials. HMTUSA is aimed at improving transportation safety by
ensuring that hazardous material manufacturers, transportation
companies, and community safety officials reduce the threat of
chemical accidents on our nationþs highways, railroads, and
waterways.
SOME QUESTIONS & ANSWERS ON COMMUNITY SAFETY
Q. How do I know what chemicals are used or made in an
industrial plant near my home and what amounts are being
stored there?
A. Ask the plant for a copy of EPCRA Section 311 and 312 data
submitted to the LEPC and an explanation of the codes used.
Or, ask the LEPC for this information.
Q. In case of an accident at a chemical plant, who will warn
me and my family about toxic emissions and provide for
appropriate protection?
A. Your LEPC has developed warning systems, evacuation plans,
and shelter-in-place instructions. You can also ask the
local plant to explain how their emergency response plans
mesh with the LEPC. The plant must report immediately all
incidents of chemical releases to the NRC, the SERC, and
the LEPC.
Q. Are visible, continuous emissions or odors from an
industrial plant harmful?
A. To identify whether specific emissions are harmful, you
should ask the plant manager about emissions and request a
copy of the plant's SARA Section 313 data. Or, ask your
SERC for the data. EPA's Chemical Emergency Preparedness
and Prevention Office also may be able to help. After
identifying the chemicals and volumes being emitted,
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) may help you to
determine risk. Remember that risk depends on the dose
received; Section 313 data are reported annually and can
not be used alone to accurately determine exposure or dose,
or their consequences.
Q. Where do I get the MSDS for the emissions in question? Can
I understand an MSDS? Isn't it too technical?
A. An MSDS is a fact sheet that describes how to use, handle,
and dispose of a specific chemical (see the Glossary). The
plant that manufactures, stores, or discharges the chemical
must submit an MSDS to the LEPC. Ask the LEPC or the plant
safety manager for help in interpreting the information.
Q. What is the difference between hazardous chemicals and
toxic chemicals?
A. Hazardous chemicals are a much broader category and may be
toxic, flammable, corrosive, explosive, or environmentally
harmful. Substances which are toxic can cause severe
illness, poisoning, or death when ingested, inhaled, or
absorbed by living organisms. Toxic chemicals are one type
of hazardous chemical.
Q. If I am exposed to a small amount of a toxic chemical once,
are my chances of getting cancer the same as someone who is
exposed to the chemical everyday?
A. Generally, no. Exposure relates both to the amount and
frequency of coming into contact with a specific chemical.
Federal agencies have established certain exposure limits
for workers that prevent them from becoming ill. Repeated
exposure to low levels of a mix of chemicals may be linked
to health problems, while a single incident at a higher
level may be below a toxic threshold.
Q. What processes can be used to reduce or eliminate the
hazards presented by the storage and transportation of
large volumes of hazardous chemicals?
A. There are some technologies, called continuing or
closed-loop processes, that convert hazardous or dangerous
compounds into more stable or less toxic substances in a
single continuous system. That is, some chemicals are
immediately converted or recombined in the manufacturing
process to reduce risks that would otherwise be posed by
transportation and storage. Some companies also are using
just-in-time delivery to reduce the need to store large
volumes of chemicals.
Q. Where can I go to get more information about chemical
risks?
A. Ask EPA's Office of Research and Development, your LEPC,
environmental or consumer activists, or any of several
other organizations in the directory at the end of this
Guide.
HEALTH & ENVIRONMENTAL RISK
Risk is a description of the chance that some hazard to health or
the environment will occur. For example, insurance companies
commonly use risk to assess the probability that a driver will or
will not have an accident. While society has always assessed risk,
it was not until recently that risk has been discussed as a
policy-making tool for health and environmental issues.
Risk assessment is an evaluation of the potential for a problem to
occur and the scientific analysis of its threat to public health
and the environment. The evaluation may include toxicology,
epidemiology, and exposure data and provides a systematic analysis
of risks. While risk assessments are based on science, they are
rarely precise, since absolute data almost never exist.
In attempting to control risks, environmental managers examine the
options and select those that best reduce risk. Some management
decisions may lead to elimination of the risk altogether. Since
precise estimates of risk often are not possible, policy makers may
use qualitative risk assessments to identify substances or
activities that pose a risk to our health and the environment. With
good data, quantitative risk assessments can go a step further to
identify how much of a substance or activity may cause a harmful
effect. For example, exposure to 10 grams of a chemical compound
may create a specific health problem, or the loss of 20% of the
trees in the Amazon basin may cause a number of severe problems for
wildlife.
Risk analysis is used by agencies, industries, and individuals
every day to identify health and environmental problems in our
society. Regulatory agencies use risk assessment as a tool to
evaluate health and safety issues such as food safety and workplace
exposure. Chemicals or practices that are identified as very risky
receive more management attention then those perceived to be less
risky.
Risk communication is the exchange of information between
interested parties and is a tool for understanding many
environmental risks. To enhance public outreach activities about
risk, EPA is working toward environmental equity so that no segment
of the population, regardless of race, national origin, or income
bears a disproportionate share of exposure to environmental
pollutants. For information on how agencies use risk assessments
regarding specific public hazards, you should call EPA's Office of
Policy, Planning, and Evaluation or your state agencies that deal
with health and environmental protection.
SOME QUESTIONS & ANSWERS ON HEALTH & ENVIRONMENTAL RISK
Q. Can a risk assessment tell me exactly what to do about a
specific hazard?
A. No. Risk assessments are often imprecise in that they draw
upon available information about the hazard, apply
scientific principles, and provide guidance. But risk
assessments can help you identify hazards. You can use that
information to decide what steps, if any, to take to reduce
the hazard.
Q. Why use risk assessment if it can not provide absolute
answers?
A. Because so many hazards exist in everyday life, risk
assessment must be used as a tool for evaluating the most
pressing or most hazardous. Over time we find that some
activities are more hazardous than once perceived (smoking
cigarettes or manufacturing PCBs). Once the evidence is
evaluated, these practices may be either stopped or
limited. An assessment on an unknown chemical or practice
attempts to project what the consequences might be without
waiting for final proof.
Q. Is zero risk possible? Can we eliminate all risk?
A. No. We live in a world with many risks, both natural and
manmade, and many we take voluntarily. We can develop
practices that reduce, but not totally eliminate, daily
risks. For example, U.S. motor vehicle laws mandate that we
drive on the right side of the road. This reduces, but does
not eliminate, auto accidents. Similarly, public health and
environmental officials, together with industries and the
public, must seek to reduce industrial accidents and
societal hazards that contribute to involuntary risk.
ENFORCEMENT
Environmental enforcement is a comprehensive program involving
federal, state, local, and tribal governments working together to
enforce federal environmental laws. These laws set standards for
what individuals and institutions must do to control or prevent
pollution. Without enforcement, environmental laws would be just
words on paper.
The term "enforcement" covers all efforts to encourage compliance
with environmental laws. "Compliance" refers to the condition that
exists when a person or company fully obeys the law. An
environmental law without compliance would mean that pollution
problems would continue and grow worse. EPA has an enforcement
program to make sure that laws get the results that Congress and
the public want.This program will include environmental justice
concerns in all compliance efforts.
The fundamental aim of enforcement is to convince those who are
regulated that it is better to comply quickly than to wait until
they are caught. We use enforcement actions to compel a person or
company to comply. These actions include civil and criminal
prosecution in courts, administrative orders, and other forms of
action that take place after a violation has occurred. Although
directed at a specific violator, enforcement causes a deterrent
effect that motivates other people to comply.
SOME QUESTIONS & ANSWERS ON HEALTH & ENVIRONMENTAL RISK
Q. Is EPA responsible for every environmental action?
A. No. Virtually every federal environmental law allows state
governments to develop their own programs to carry out the
law. When EPA has determined that the state program meets
federal requirements, EPA approves the program. Such
programs are called "delegated" or "approved" programs.
Under this arrangement, the states apply the national
standards and regulations by issuing and enforcing their
own rules and permits. State governments carry out the
lion's share of environmental enforcement actions and
perform a majority of the inspections.
Q. What is the enforcement relationship between EPA and the
states?
A. EPA strives to work out an effective enforcement
partnership with each state. This is accomplished through
enforcement agreements with the separate state agencies.
These agreements usually define the characteristics of a
good program, using the same criteria by which EPA judges
its own performance. The agreements also spell out the
circumstances under which EPA will step in and take
enforcement action in an approved state program (called
"overfiling"). The most common reasons are: the state asked
for help; the stateþs enforcement response was not timely
and appropriate (according to EPA guidance); the case
involves national precedents; or there is a violation of an
EPA order or settlement agreement.
Q. What is the range of enforcement responses?
A. EPA's policy is to respond to every violation in some way,
and the type of response will be in keeping with the
seriousness and circumstances of the violation. EPA has a
range of options when contemplating an enforcement response
against a violator, and these options differ from one law
to another:
o Informal responseþadministrative actions that are
advisory in nature, such as a notice of noncompliance
or a warning letter. In these actions, EPA advises the
manager of a facility what violation was found, what
corrective action should be taken, and by what date.
Informal responses carry no penalty or power to compel
actions, but if they are ignored, they can lead to
more severe actions.
o Formal administrative responsesþlegal orders that are
independently enforceable, and which may require the
recipient to take some corrective or remedial action
within a specified period of time, to refrain from
certain behavior or to require future compliance.
These administrative actions are strong enforcement
tools. If a person violates an order, EPA may go to
U.S. federal court to force compliance. Administrative
actions are handled under EPA's internal
administrative litigation system, which is comparable
to any court system except that administrative law
judges preside.
o Civil judicial responsesþformal lawsuits brought in
U.S. federal court by the Department of Justice (DOJ)
at EPA's request. They are normally used against the
more serious or recalcitrant violators of
environmental laws or to seek prompt correction of
imminent hazards. Civil judicial cases generally
result in penalties and court orders requiring
correction of the violation and specific actions to
prevent future violations.
o Criminal judicial responsesþused when a person or
company has knowingly and willfully violated the law.
In a criminal case, the DOJ prosecutes an alleged
violator in federal court, seeking criminal sanctions
including fines and imprisonment. Criminal actions are
often used to respond to flagrant, intentional
disregard for environmental laws (such as "midnight
dumping" of hazardous wastes) and deliberate
falsification of documents or records.
Q. What happens as a result of an enforcement case?
A. Most importantly, the enforcement action results in a
remedy to the violations, but also serves as a deterrent to
others. In many cases, EPA seeks both a remedy and a
penalty. These may result from either administrative or
judicial cases, and either from a settlement or from a
final decision in court or an administrative action. The
remedy includes returning the violating facility to
compliance and sometimes other remedial actions:
o Complianceþthe violator will be required to comply
with the law. If the violation has not already been
corrected, the violator is usually placed under a
court-ordered schedule, with severe penalties for
failure to comply with the order.
o Benefit projectsþin some cases, the violator is
permitted to carry out a supplemental environmental
project that will yield environmental benefits partly
offsetting the harmful effects of the violation.
o Penaltiesþthe violator is required to pay a cash
penalty that is not tax deductible (in criminal cases,
a fine). The penalty includes sanctions intended to
deter the violator from falling into noncompliance
again and to deter others from similar violations.
o Imprisonmentþin criminal cases, the violator may be
sentenced to jail time or placed on probation.
o Contractor listingþa facility that has violated the
Clean Water Act or the Clean Air Act may be placed on
EPA's List of Violating Facilities. Listed facilities
are not eligible to receive federal contracts, grants,
or loans from EPA or any other federal agency.
Facilities that commit criminal violations of other
environmental statutes may be subject to possible
suspension and/or debarment from receiving or entering
into EPA or other federal agency contracts.
Q. What is an inspection?
A. Inspections are the government's main tool for officially
assessing compliance. An inspection is an examination into
the environmental affairs of a single regulated facility,
to determine its compliance with environmental
requirements. Inspection findings become the basis for a
variety of possible actions EPA might take to bring the
facility into compliance.
Q. How does the EPA decide which facilities to inspect?
A. While we would like to inspect every regulated facility on
a regular basis, we do not have the funds or personnel to
do so. As a result, each EPA program has a strategy or
policy for allocating inspections to various segments of
the regulated community and ultimately to particular
facilities. Most inspections are routine, conducted because
the facility is within a segment of the regulated community
that has been targeted for inspection. Other inspections
are "for cause," meaning there is some reason to suspect
that an actual violation exists. The stimulus may be a tip,
a citizen's complaint, a self-monitoring report, or
information from the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI).
Inspections may be announced or unannounced.
Q. Can a citizen file a suit to enforce an environmental
standard?
A. Yes. The first citizen suit provision appeared in 1970,
when Congress enacted the Clean Air Act. Specifically, this
provision allowed citizens to sue polluters who violated
certain requirements of the Clean Air Act and to sue the
EPA if we failed to carry out a non-discretionary duty set
forth in the Act. Since 1970, a citizen suit provision has
been included in almost every federal environmental
statute. Under these statutes, Congress has granted
citizens the power to initiate an enforcement action in
federal court in order to ensure adequate protection of the
environment. Citizen suits have proven to be an important
tool for the enforcement of the various environmental
statutes.
Q. How can I recognize a potential pollution problem?
A. While some pollution is an unfortunate consequence of
modern industrial life, national and state laws limit the
amount and kinds of pollution allowed. Sometimes a citizen
can easily identify pollution that violates a law and
sometimes we need sophisticated equipment. EPA encourages
the public to "keep their eyes and ears open" and to
contact the appropriate local, state, and federal
authorities whenever they notice a potential pollution
problem.
Q. Whom should I contact to report a pollution incident?
A. State and local governments have responsibility for
enforcing most environmental laws in the area where you
live. You can locate them through your telephone directory.
In most communities, the responsible agency is the city or
county health department. At the state level, an
environmental agency carries out the pollution control
laws, whereas an agriculture agency often handles
regulation of pesticides. If they are unable to help you,
contact the EPA, which principally operates through 10
Regional Offices. The Public Affairs office is a good
starting point.
GLOSSARY
Acid - A corrosive solution with a pH less than 7. Vinegar is a
common weak acid; battery acid is much stronger.
Acid Rain - You first need to understand Acid Deposition: a
complex chemical and atmospheric phenomenon that occurs when
emissions of sulfur and nitrogen compounds
and other substances are transformed by
chemical processes in the atmosphere, often
far from the original sources, and then
deposited on earth in either wet or dry
form. The wet forms (precipitation) are
popularly called "acid rain" and fall as
rain, snow, or fog. The dry forms are acidic
gases or particulates.
Active Ingredient - In any pesticide product, the component that
kills, or otherwise controls, target pests. Pesticides are
regulated primarily on the basis of active
ingredients.
Activated Sludge Process - A sewage treatment process by which
bacteria that feed on organic wastes are continuously
circulated and put in contact with organic
waste in the presence of oxygen to increase
the rate of decomposition.
Acute Effect - An adverse effect on any living organism in which
severe symptoms develop rapidly and often subside after the
exposure stops.
Acute Toxicity - Adverse effects that result from a single dose or
single exposure of a chemical; any poisonous effect produced
within a short period of time, usually less than 96
hours. This term normally is used to describe effects
in experimental animals.
Administrative Order on Consent - A legal agreement signed by EPA
and an individual, business, or other entity through which
the violator agrees to pay for correction of
violations, take the required corrective or cleanup
actions, or refrain from an activity. The order
describes the actions to be taken, may be subject to
a comment period, applies to civil actions, and can be
enforced in court.
Administrative Order - A legal document signed by EPA directing an
individual, business, or other entity to take corrective
action or refrain from an activity. The order
describes the violations and actions to be taken,
and can be enforced in court. Such orders may be
issued, for example, as a result of an
administrative complaint whereby the respondent
is ordered to pay a penalty for violations of a
statute.
Administrative Record - All documents which EPA considered or
relied on in selecting the remedy at a Superfund site,
culminating in the record of decision for
remedial action, or an action memorandum for
removal actions.
Aeration - The act of mixing a liquid with air (oxygen).
Aerobic - A biological process that occurs in the presence of
oxygen.
Agricultural Waste - Poultry and livestock manure, and residual
materials in liquid or solid form generated from the
production and marketing of poultry, livestock,
furbearing animals, and their products. Also
includes grain, vegetable, and fruit harvest
residue.
Air Quality Standards - The level of selected pollutants set by law
that may not be exceeded in outside air. Used to determine the
amount of pollutants that may be emitted by
industry.
Alar - Trade name for daminozide, a pesticide that makes apples
redder, firmer, and less likely to drop off trees before growers
are ready to pick them. Alar also is used to a
lesser extent on peanuts, tart cherries, concord
grapes, and other fruits.
Alkalinity - Having the properties of a base with a pH of more than
7. A common alkaline is baking soda.
Ambient - Any unconfined portion of the atmosphere; open air;
outside surrounding air.
Anaerobic - A biological process which occurs in the absence of
oxygen.
Aquifer - A water-bearing layer of rock (including gravel and sand)
that will yield water in usable quantity to a well or spring.
Asbestos - A mineral fiber that can pollute air or water and cause
cancer or asbestosis when inhaled. EPA has banned or severely
restricted the use of asbestos in manufacturing and
construction.
Assimilative Capacity - The ability of a natural body of water to
receive wastewaters or toxic materials without harmful effects
and without damage to aquatic life.
Bactericide - A pesticide used to control or destroy bacteria,
typically in the home, schools, or on hospital equipment.
Benthic Organism - Any of a diverse group of aquatic plants and
animals that lives on the bottom of marine and fresh bodies of
water. The presence or absence of certain benthic
organisms can be used as an indicator of water
quality.
Best Available Control Technology (BACT) The application of the
most advanced methods, systems, and techniques for eliminating
or minimizing discharges and emissions on a
case-by-case basis as determined by EPA. BACT
represents an emission limit based on the maximum
degree of reduction of each pollutant as
described in regulations under the Clean Air Act
(CAA). The determination of BACT takes into
account energy, environmental, economic effects,
and other costs.
Best Available Technology Economically Achievable (BATEA) -
Originally described under Section 304(b)(2)(B) of the Clean
Water Act, this level of control is
generally described as the best technology
currently in use and includes controls on
toxic pollutants.
Best Management Practices (BMP) - Procedures or controls other than
effluent limitations to prevent or reduce pollution of surface
water (includes runoff control, spill prevention, and
operating procedures).
Bioaccumulation/Biomagnification - A process where chemicals are
retained in fatty body tissue and increase in concentration
over time. Biomagnification is the increase of
tissue accumulation in species higher in the
natural food chain as contaminated food species
are eaten.
Bioassay - A method of testing a material's effects on living
organisms.
Biochemicals - Chemicals that are either naturally occurring or
identical to naturally occurring substances. Examples include
hormones, pheromones, and enzymes. Biochemicals
function as pesticides through non-toxic,
non-lethal modes of action, such as disrupting
the mating pattern of insects, regulating growth,
or acting as repellants. Biochemicals tend to be
environmentally compatible and are thus important
to Integrated Pest Management programs.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) - A measure of the oxygen required
to break down organic materials in water. Higher organic loads
require larger amounts of oxygen and may reduce
the amount of oxygen available for fish and
aquatic life below acceptable levels.
Biodegradable - The ability of a substance to be broken down
physically and/or chemically by microorganisms. For example,
many chemicals, food scraps, cotton, wool,
and paper are bio-degradable; plastics and
polyester generally are not.
Biodiversity - The number and variety of different organisms in the
ecological complexes in which they naturally occur. Organisms
are organized at many levels, ranging from complete
ecosystems to the biochemical structures that are the
molecular basis of heredity. Thus, the term
encompasses different ecosystems, species, and genes
that must be present for a healthy environment. A
large number of species must characterize the food
chain, representing multiple predator-prey
relationships.
Biological pesticides - Certain microorganisms, including bacteria,
fungi, viruses, and protozoa that are effective in
controlling target pests. These agents usually do not
have toxic effects on animals and people and do not
leave toxic or persistent chemical residues in the
environment.
Bioremediation - The use of living organisms (e.g., bacteria) to
clean up oil spills or remove other pollutants from soil,
water, and wastewater.
Biota - All living organisms in a given area.
Boom - (1) A floating device used to contain oil on a body of
water. (2) A piece of equipment used to apply pesticides from
a tractor or truck.
Bubble (Bubble Policy) - Existing sources of air pollution with
several facilities may control more than is required at one
emission point where control costs are lower, in
return for comparable relaxation at a second point
where costs are higher or more difficult to achieve.
By-product - Materials, other than the intended product, generated
as a result of an industrial process.
Cap - A fairly impermeable seal, usually composed of clay-type soil
or a combination of clay soil and synthetic liner, which is
placed over a landfill during closure. The cap serves to
minimize leachate volume during biodegradation of the waste
by keeping precipitation from percolating through the
landfill. The cap also keeps odors down and animal
scavengers from gathering.
Capacity Assurance Plan - A plan which assures that a state has the
ability to treat and dispose of hazardous wastes generated within
its borders over the next 20 years. Section 104 of
SARA required the first plan to be submitted to EPA in
October 1989. But even though capacity has been
certified, the state is not required to treat or
dispose of hazardous wastes at home; many are
exporting to other states that have commercial
facilities, permitted landfills, and incinerators. See
Law section.
Carcinogenic or Carcinogen - Capable of causing cancer. A suspected
carcinogen is a substance that may cause cancer in humans or
animals but for which the evidence is not conclusive.
CERCLIS (Pronounced SERK-liss) - The federal Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Information
System. This database includes all sites which
have been nominated for investigation by the
Superfund program and the actions that have been
taken at these sites. If the site investigation
reveals contamination, the site is ranked and may
be included on the National Priorities List for
Superfund cleanup. Inclusion in the CERCLIS
database does not necessarily mean that a
property is a hazardous waste site. An emergency
action may have been conducted there or a simple
investigation which concluded that no further
action was required.
Chemical Abstract Service (CAS) - Since the 1890s, CAS has been
assigning identification numbers to chemicals that companies
register with them. Every year, CAS updates and writes
new chemical abstracts on well over a million
different chemicals, including their composition,
structure, characteristics, and all the different
names of that chemical. CAS On-Line is a computer
network available to individual and business account
holders to receive information about specific
chemicals of concern. Each abstract is accompanied by
the CAS number.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) - A measure of the oxygen-consuming
capacity of inorganic and organic matter present in water or
wastewater; the amount of oxygen consumed from a
chemical oxidant in a specific test.
Chlorination - Adding chlorine to water or wastewater, generally
for the purpose of disinfection, but frequently for accomplishing
other biological or chemical results. Chlorine
also is used almost universally in manufacturing
processes, particularly for the plastics
industry.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - A family of chemicals commonly used in
air conditioners and refrigerators as coolants and also as
solvents and aerosol propellants. CFCs drift into the upper
atmosphere where their chlorine components destroy ozone.
CFCs are thought to be a major cause of the ozone hole over
Antarctica.
Chronic Effect - An adverse effect on any living organism in which
symptoms develop slowly over a long period of time or recur
frequently.
Clear Cut - Harvesting all the trees in one area at one time, a
practice that destroys vital habitat and biodiversity and
encourages rainfall or snowmelt runoff, erosion,
sedimentation of streams and lakes, and flooding.
Cloning - In biotechnology, obtaining a group of genetically
identical cells from a single cell; making identical copies of a
gene.
Climate Change - this term is commonly used interchangeably with
"global warming" and "the greenhouse effect," but is a more
descriptive term. Climate change refers to
the buildup of man-made gases in the
atmosphere that trap the sunþs heat, causing
changes in weather patterns on a global
scale. The effects include changes in
rainfall patterns, sea level rise, potential
droughts, habitat loss, and heat stress. The
greenhouse gases of most concern are carbon
dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxides. If
these gases in our atmosphere double, the
earth could warm up by 1.5 to 4.5 degrees by
the year 2050, with changes in global
precipitation having the greatest
consequences.
Closure - The procedure an operator must go through when a landfill
reaches the legal capacity for solid waste. No more waste
can be accepted and a cap usually is placed over
the site. The cap is then planted with grasses
and other ground covers. Post-closure care
includes monitoring ground water, landfill gases,
and leachate collection systems, sometimes for as
long as 30 years.
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) - A periodic publication of the
regulations established by U.S. law.
Commercial Waste - All solid waste from businesses. This category
includes, but is not limited to, solid waste originating in
stores, markets, office buildings, restaurants,
shopping centers, and theaters.
Commercial Waste Management Facility - A treatment, storage,
disposal, or transfer facility that accepts wastes from a
variety of sources for profit. A commercial
facility manages a broader spectrum of wastes
than a private facility, which normally manages
a limited volume or type of waste.
Community Relations - Two-way communications with the public to
foster understanding of EPA programs and actions and to
increase citizen input into EPA decisions. Specific
community relations activities such as holding public
meetings and comment periods and opening information
repositories are required at Superfund sites.
Compost - Decomposed organic material that is produced when
bacteria in soil break down garbage and biodegradable trash,
making organic fertilizer. Making compost
requires turning and mixing and exposing the
materials to air. Gardeners and farmers use
compost for soil enrichment.
Concentration - The relative amount of a substance mixed with
another substance. An example is five parts per million of
carbon monoxide in air or 1 milligram/liter
of iron in water.
Conditionally Exempt Generators - Small quantity facilities that
produce fewer than 220 pounds of hazardous waste per month.
Exempt from most regulations, conditionally
exempt generators are required to determine
whether their waste is hazardous and to notify
local waste management agencies. These generators
may treat or dispose of the waste on site or
ensure that the waste is sent to a permitted
disposal or recycling facility.
Cone of Depression - A lowering in the water table that develops
around a pumped well.
Construction and Demolition Waste - Waste building materials,
dredging materials, tree stumps, and rubble resulting from
construction, remodeling, repair, and
demolition operations on houses, commercial
buildings and other structures, and
pavements. May contain lead, asbestos, or
other hazardous materials.
Corrosive - A substance that eats or wears away materials gradually
by chemical action.
Consent Decree - A legal document submitted by the Department of
Justice on behalf of the EPA for approval by a federal judge to
settle a case. A consent decree can be used to
formalize an agreement reached between EPA and
potentially responsible parties (PRPs) for cleanup at
a Superfund site. Consent decrees also are signed by
regulated facilities to cease or correct certains
actions or processes that are polluting the
environment and include payment of penalties. The
Clean Water Act, Clean Air Act, Toxic Substances
Control Act, and others all use consent decrees.
Conservation - Preserving and renewing natural resources to assure
their highest economic or social benefit over the longest
period of time. Clean rivers and lakes,
wilderness areas, a diverse wildlife population,
healthy soil, and clean air are natural resources
worth conserving for future generations.
Continuous Discharge - A permitted release of pollutants into the
environment that occurs without interruption, except for
infrequent shutdowns for maintenance, process
changes, etc.
Controlled Reaction - A chemical reaction at temperature and
pressure conditions that are maintained within safe limits to
produce a desired product.
County Emergency Operations Plan - A plan required by Federal
Emergency Management Agency regulations that describes actions
the county will take to respond to emergency
situations such as natural disasters, major fires,
transportation incidents, or chemical releases.
Covered Facility - A facility having one or more of the 366+
extremely hazardous substances in amounts higher than the
quantity designated by EPCRA. These
facilities must file reports with the SERC
and LEPC.
Cradle-to-Grave or Manifest System - A procedure in which hazardous
wastes are identified as they are produced and are followed
through further treatment, transportation, and
disposal by a series of permanent, linkable,
descriptive documents.
Criteria - Descriptive factors taken into account by EPA in setting
standards for pollutants. For example, water quality criteria
describe the concentration of pollutants that
most fish can be exposed to for an hour without
showing acute effects.
Dechlorination - Removal of chlorine and chemical replacement with
hydrogen or hydroxide ions to detoxify a substance.
Deep Well Injection - A process by which waste fluids are injected
deep below the surface of the earth.
Delist - Use of the petition process (1) to have a chemical's toxic
designation rescinded; (2) to remove a site from the National
Priority List; or (3) to exclude a particular
waste from regulation even though it is a listed
hazardous waste.
Destruction and Removal Efficiency (DRE) - a percentage that
represents the number of molecules of a compound removed or
destroyed in an incinerator. A DRE of 99.99%
means that 9,999 molecules are destroyed for
every 10,000 that enter.
Discharge - The release of any waste into the environment from a
point source. Usually refers to the release of a liquid waste
into a body of water through an outlet such as a
pipe, but also refers to air emissions.
Discharge Area - An area of land where there is a net annual
transfer of water from the ground water to surface water, such
as to streams, springs, lakes, and wetlands.
Dispersion Model - A mathematical prediction of how pollutants from
a discharge or emission source will be distributed in the
surrounding environment under given conditions of
wind, temperature, humidity, and other
environmental factors.
Disposal - The discharge, deposit, injection, dumping, spilling,
leaking, or placing of any solid waste or hazardous waste
into the environment (land, surface water, ground
water, and air).
Disposal Facility - A landfill, incinerator, or other facility
which receives waste for disposal. The facility may have one or
many disposal methods available for use. Does not
include wastewater treatment.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) - Oxygen that is freely available in water to
sustain the lives of fish and other aquatic organisms.
Dose - In terms of monitoring exposure levels, the amount of a
toxic substance taken into the body over a given period of time.
Dose Response - How an organism's response to a toxic substance
changes as its overall exposure to the substance changes. For
example, a small dose of carbon monoxide may
cause drowsiness; a large dose can be fatal.
Dump - A land site where wastes are discarded in a disorderly or
haphazard fashion without regard to protecting the environment.
Uncontrolled dumping is an indiscriminate and illegal
form of waste disposal. Problems associated with dumps
include multiplication of disease-carrying organisms
and pests, fires, air and water pollution,
unsightliness, loss of habitat, and personal injury.
Emergency Broadcasting System (EBS) - Used to inform the public
about an emergency and the protective actions to take. The EBS
is a service of local radio and television stations,
activated as needed and approved by a local emergency
management agency.
Ecology - The study of the relationships between all living
organisms and the environment, especially the totality or
pattern of interactions; a view that
includes all plant and animal species and
their unique contributions to a particular
habitat.
Ecosystem - The interacting synergism of all living organisms in a
particular environment; every plant, insect, aquatic animal,
bird, or land species that forms a complex web of
interdependency. An action taken at any level in the
food chain, use of a pesticide for example, has a
potential domino effect on every other occupant of
that system.
Effluent - Wastewater discharged from a point source, such as a
pipe.
Effluent Guidelines - Technical documents developed by EPA which
set discharge limits for particular types of industries and
specific pollutants.
Effluent Limitations - Limits on the amounts of pollutants which
may be discharged by a facility; these limits are calculated
so that water quality standards will not be violated
even at low stream flows.
Emergency and Hazardous Chemical Inventory - An annual report by
facilities having one or more extremely hazardous substances or
hazardous chemicals above certain weight limits, as
specified in Section 311 and 312 of EPCRA.
Emergency Preparedness Coordinator - The local government official
designated to be notified immediately of chemical emergencies
(e.g., spills, chemical releases, explosions, or
fires) under EPCRA.
Emission - The release or discharge of a substance into the
environment. Generally refers to the release of gases or
particulates into the air.
Emission Standards - Government standards that establish limits on
discharges of pollutants into the environment (usually in
reference to air).
Endangered Species - Animals, plants, birds, fish, or other living
organisms threatened with extinction by man-made or natural
changes in the environment.
Energy Recovery - To capture energy from waste through any of a
variety of processes (e.g., burning). Many new technology
incinerators are waste-to-energy recovery units.
Environmental Assessment (EA) - A preliminary, written,
environmental analysis required by NEPA (see the Federal Law
section) to determine whether a
federal activity such as building
airports or highways would
significantly affect the environment;
may require preparation of more
detailed Environmental Impact
Statement.
Environmental Audit - An independent assessment (not conducted by
EPA) of a facility's compliance policies, practices, and
controls. Many pollution prevention initiatives
require an audit to determine where wastes may be
reduced or eliminated or energy conserved. Many
supplemental environmental projects that offset a
penalty use audits to identify ways to reduce the
harmful effects of a violation.
Environmental Equity - Equal protection from environmental hazards
for individuals, groups, or communities regardless of race,
ethnicity, or economic status.
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) - A document prepared by or
for EPA which identifies and analyzes, in detail, environmental
impacts of a proposed action. As a tool for
decision-making, the EIS describes positive and
negative effects and lists alternatives for an
undertaking, such as development of a wilderness
area. (Required by NEPA þ see Federal Law
Section).
Environmental Justice - The fair treatment of people of all races,
cultures, incomes, and educational levels with respect to the
development and enforcement of environmental laws,
regulations, and policies. Fair treatment implies that
no population should be forced to shoulder a
disproportionate share of exposure to the negative
effects of pollution due to lack of political or
economic strength.
Environmental Response Team (ERT) - EPAþs group of highly trained
scientists and engineers based in Edison, NJ and Cincinnati, OH
who back up the federal On-Scene Coordinator. The
ERT's capabilities include multimedia sampling
and analysis, hazard assessment, hazardous
substance and oil spill cleanup techniques, and
technical support.
Epidemiologist - A medical scientist who studies the various
factors involved in the incidence, distribution, and control of
disease in a population.
Erosion - The wearing away of soil by wind or water, intensified by
land-clearing practices related to farming, residential or
industrial development, road building, or
logging.
Estuary - A complex ecosystem between a river and near-shore ocean
waters where fresh and salt water mix. These brackish areas
include bays, mouths of rivers, salt marshes,
wetlands, and lagoons and are influenced by tides
and currents. Estuaries provide valuable habitat
for marine animals, birds, and other wildlife.
Explosive Limits (chemical) - The amounts of vapor in air that form
explosive mixtures. These limits are expressed as lower and
upper values and give the range of vapor
concentrations in air that will explode if an ignition
source is present.
Exposure - Radiation or pollutants that come into contact with the
body and present a potential health threat. The most common
routes of exposure are through the skin, mouth, or by
inhalation.
Extremely Hazardous Substances (EHS) - Any of 366 (+ or -)
chemicals or hazardous substances identified by EPA on the
basis of hazard or toxicity and listed
under EPCRA. The list is periodically
revised.
Fecal Coliform Bacteria - Found in the intestinal tracts of
mammals, this bacteria in water or sludge is an indicator of
pollution and possible contamination by
pathogens.
Feedstock - Raw material supplied to a machine or processing plant
from which other products can be made. For example, polyvinyl
chloride and polyethylene are raw chemicals used to
produce plastic tiles, mats, fenders, cushions, and
traffic cones.
Financial Assurance - A means (such as insurance, guarantee, surety
bond, letter of credit, or qualification as a self-insurer) by
the operator of a facility such as a landfill to
assure financial capability for cleaning up
possible environmental releases and closure of
that facility.
First Draw - The water that comes out when a faucet in the kitchen
or bathroom is first opened, which is likely to have the
highest level of lead contamination from old
plumbing solder and pipes.
Flammable - Describes any material that can be ignited easily and
that will burn rapidly.
Flare - A device that burns gaseous materials to prevent them from
being released into the environment. Flares may operate
continuously or intermittently and are usually
found on top of a stack. Flares also burn off
methane gas in a landfill.
Flash Point - The lowest temperature at which evaporation of a
substance produces enough vapor to form an ignitable mixture
with air.
Floodplain - Mostly level land along rivers and streams that may be
submerged by floodwater. A 100-year floodplain is an area
which can be expected to flood once in every 100
years.
Flue Gas Desulfurization - The removal of sulfur oxides from
exhaust gases of a boiler or industrial process; usually a wet
scrubbing operation which concentrates
hazardous materials in a slurry, requiring
proper disposal.
Fugitive Emissions - Air pollutants released to the air other than
those from stacks or vents; typically small releases from leaks
in plant equipment such as valves, pump seals,
flanges, sampling connections, etc.
Fungicide - A pesticide used to control or destroy fungi on food or
grain crops.
Garbage - Food waste (animal and vegetable) resulting from the
handling, storage, packaging, sale, preparation, cooking, and
serving of foods.
General Reporting Facility - A facility having one or more
hazardous chemicals above the 10,000-pound Threshold Planning
Quantity. These facilities must file
Material Safety Data Sheets and emergency
inventory information with the SERC, LEPC,
and local fire departments.
Generator - A facility or mobile source that emits pollutants into
the air; any person who produces a hazardous waste that is
listed by EPA and therefore subject to
regulation.
Genetic Engineering - A process of inserting new genetic
information into existing cells in order to modify an
organism for the purpose of changing
particular characteristics.
Global Warming - See definition for Climate Change.
Grab Sample - A single sample of soil or of water taken without
regard to time or flow.
Greenhouse Effect - See definition for Climate Change.
Ground Water - Water found below the surface of the land, usually
in porous rock formations. Ground water is the source of water
found in wells and springs and is used frequently
for drinking.
Hazard Communication Standard - An OSHA regulation that requires
chemical manufacturers, suppliers, and importers to assess the
hazards of the chemicals they make, supply, or import,
and to inform employers, customers, and workers of
these hazards through a Material Safety Data Sheet.
Hazardous Chemical - EPAþs designation for any hazardous material
that requires a Material Safety Data Sheet. Such substances are
capable of producing adverse physical effects
(fire, explosion, etc.) or adverse health effects
(cancer, dermatitis, etc.)
Hazardous Waste - A subset of solid wastes that pose substantial or
potential threats to public health or the environment and meet
any of the following criteria:
o is specifically listed as a hazardous waste by EPA;
exhibits one or more of the characteristics of hazardous
wastes (ignitability, corrosiveness, reactivity, and/or
toxicity);
o is generated by the treatment of hazardous waste; or is
contained in a hazardous waste.
Hazardous Waste Landfill - A specially permitted, excavated or
engineered area in which hazardous waste is deposited and
covered. Proper protection of the environment
from the materials to be deposited in such a
landfill requires careful site selection, the
cataloging of types of wastes, good design
(including a liner and a leachate collection and
treatment system), proper operation, and thorough
final closure.
Health Assessment - An evaluation of available data on existing or
potential risks posed by a Superfund site. Every site on the
National Priorities List has a health assessment
prepared by the Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry (see Government Agency section).
Heavy Metal - A common hazardous waste; can damage organisms at
low concentrations and tends to accumulate in the food chain.
Herbicide - A pesticide designed to control or kill plants, weeds,
or grasses. Almost 70% of all pesticide used by farmers and
ranchers are herbicides. These chemicals have
wide-ranging effects on non-target species (other
than those the pesticide is meant to control).
Household or Domestic Waste - Solid waste, composed of garbage and
rubbish, which normally originates from residential, private
households, or apartment buildings. Domestic
waste may contain a significant amount of toxic
or hazardous waste from improperly discarded
pesticides, paints, batteries, and cleaners.
Hydraulic Gradient - The direction of ground water flow due to
changes in the depth of the water table.
Hydrocarbons - Chemicals that consist entirely of hydrogen and
carbon.
Hydrocarbons contribute to air pollution problems like smog.
Identification Code or EPA I.D. Number - The unique code assigned
to each generator, transporter, and treatment, storage, or
disposal facility by EPA to facilitate identification
and tracking of hazardous waste. Superfund sites also
have assigned I.D. numbers.
Impoundment - A body of water or sludge confined by a dam, dike,
floodgate, or other barrier.
Incident Command System (ICS) - An organizational scheme wherein
one person, normally the Fire Chief, takes charge of an
integrated, comprehensive emergency response.
This commander is backed by an Emergency
Operations Center which provides support,
resources, communications, and advice.
Incineration - The destruction of solid, liquid, or gaseous wastes
by controlled burning at high temperatures. Hazardous organic
compounds are converted to ash, carbon dioxide,
and water. Burning destroys organics, reduces the
volume of waste, and vaporizes water and other
liquids the wastes may contain. The residue ash
produced may contain some hazardous material,
such as non-combustible heavy metals,
concentrated from the original waste.
Incinerator - A furnace for the routine burning of waste materials
using controlled flame combustion.
Incompatible Waste - A waste unsuitable for mixing with another
waste or material because of reactivity hazards.
Indirect Discharge - The introduction of pollutants from a
non-domestic source into a publicly owned wastewater treatment
system. Indirect dischargers can be
commercial or industrial facilities who must
pre-treat their wastes before discharge into
local sewers.
Indoor Air - Breathing air inside a habitable structure, often
highly polluted because of lack of exchange with fresh oxygen
from outdoors. Solvents, smoke, paints, furniture
glues, carpet padding, and other synthetic
chemicals trapped inside contribute to an often
unhealthy environment.
Industrial Waste - Unwanted materials produced in or eliminated
from an industrial operation and categorized under a variety
of headings, such as liquid wastes, sludge, solid
wastes, and hazardous wastes.
Inert ingredients - Substances that are not þactive,þ such as
water, petroleum distillates, talc, corn meal, or soaps. When
discussing pesticides, inert ingredients do
not attack a particular pest, but some are
chemically or biologically active, causing
health and environmental problems.
Infectious Waste - See definition for Medical Waste.
Innovative Technology - New or inventive methods to treat hazardous
wastes, conserve energy, or prevent pollution.
Insecticide - A pesticide compound specifically used to kill or
prevent the growth of insects.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) - A combination of biological,
cultural, and genetic pest control methods with use of
pesticides as the last resort. IPM considers a
targeted species' life cycle and intervenes in
reproduction, growth, or development to reduce
the population. Land use practices are examined
for possible change; other animals, birds, or
reptiles in the ecosystem are used as natural
predators.
Interstate Commerce - A clause of the United States Constitution
which reserves to the federal government the right to regulate
the conduct of business across state lines. Under
this clause, the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled
that states may not restrict the disposal of
wastes originating out-of-state more than that of
waste originating in-state.
Inversion - An atmospheric condition caused by increasing
temperature with elevation, resulting in a layer of warm air
preventing the rise of cooler air trapped
beneath. This condition prevents the rise of
pollutants that might otherwise be
dispersed. Trapping pollutants near the
ground increases ozone to harmful levels.
Irradiated Food - Food that has been briefly exposed to
radioactivity (usually gamma rays) to kill insects, bacteria,
and mold. Irradiated food can be
stored without refrigeration or
chemical preservatives and has a long
"shelf life."
Irritant - A substance that can cause irritation of the skin, eyes,
or respiratory system. An irritant can cause an acute effect
from a single high-level exposure, or chronic effects from
repeated, low-level exposures. Some examples of irritants
are chlorine, nitric acid, and various pesticides.
Karst - A geologic formation of irregular limestone deposits with
sinks, underground streams, and caverns.
Lagoon - A shallow, artificial treatment pond where sunlight,
bacterial action, and oxygen work to purify wastewater; a
stabilization pond. An aerated lagoon is a
treatment pond that uses oxygen to speed up
the natural process of biological
decomposition of organic wastes. A lagoon is
regulated as a point source under the Clean
Water Act if there is a direct surface water
discharge. Some lagoons that discharge into
ground water also are regulated if they have
a direct hydrogeologic connection to surface
water. In other areas, lagoons were
historically used to dump various liquid,
solid, and hazardous wastes from
manufacturing or industrial processes. These
wastes typically flooded and polluted
surrounding environs or seeped underground.
Such lagoons are now regulated under RCRA
but some must be cleaned up under Superfund.
Land Disposal Restrictions (Land Ban) - Mandated by the 1984
amendments to RCRA; prohibits the disposal of hazardous wastes
into or on the land.
Landfill - A method for final disposal of solid waste on land. The
refuse is spread and compacted and a cover of soil applied so
that effects on the environment (including public
health and safety) are minimized. Under current
regulations, landfills are required to have liners and
leachate treatment systems to prevent contamination of
ground water and surface waters. An industrial
landfill disposes of non-hazardous industrial wastes.
A municipal landfill disposes of domestic waste
including garbage, paper, etc. This waste may include
toxins that are used in the home, such as insect
sprays and powders, engine oil, paints, solvents, and
weed killers.
Large Quantity Generator - Person or facility which generates more
than 2,200 pounds of hazardous waste per month. In 1989, only 1%
of more than 20,000 generators fell into this
category. Those generators produced nearly 97% of the
nation's hazardous waste. These generators are subject
to all requirements of RCRA.
Leachate - Liquid (mainly water) that percolates through a landfill
and has picked up dissolved, suspended, and/or microbial
contaminants from the waste. Leachate can be compared
to coffee: water that has percolated down through the
ground coffee.
Lethal Concentration 50 (LC 50) - A concentration of a pollutant or
effluent at which 50% of the test organisms die; a common
measure of acute toxicity.
Lethal Dose 50 (LD 50) - The dose of a toxicant that will kill 50%
of test organisms within a designated period of time. The
lower the LD 50, the more toxic the compound.
Limited Degradation - A policy that allows for some lowering of
natural environmental quality to a given level beneath an
established health standard.
Liner - Structure of natural clay or manufactured material
(plastic) which serves as a barrier to restrict leachate from
reaching or mixing with ground water
in landfills, lagoons, etc.
Litter - The highly visible portion of solid waste (usually
packaging material) which is generated by the consumer and
carelessly discarded outside of the regular
garbage disposal system, as on the highways
or in streets.
Local Emergency Planning Committee (LEPC) - The body appointed by
the State Emergency Response Commission (SERC), as required by
EPCRA, which develops comprehensive emergency plans
for Local Emergency Planning Districts, collects MSDS
forms and chemical release reports, and provides this
information to the public. Each county and some large
city governments participate in an LEPC.
Manifest System - Tracking of hazardous waste from "cradle to
grave" (generation through disposal), with accompanying
documents known as "manifests."
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) - Printed material concerning a
hazardous chemical, or Extremely Hazardous Substance, including
its physical properties, hazards to personnel, fire
and explosion potential, safe handling
recommendations, health effects, fire fighting
techniques, reactivity, and proper disposal.
Originally established for employee safety by OSHA.
Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT) - Generally, the best
available control technology, taking into account cost and
technical feasibility.
Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) - The maximum level of certain
contaminants permitted in drinking water supplied by a public
water system as set by EPA under the federal Safe
Drinking Water Act.
Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) - The maximum level of a
contaminant that is associated with no adverse health effects
from drinking water containing that
contaminant over a lifetime. For chemicals
believed to cause cancer, the MCLGs are set
at zero. MCLGs are not enforceable, but are
ideal, health-based goals which are set in
the National Primary Drinking Water
Standards developed by EPA. MCLs are set as
close to MCLGs as possible, considering
costs and technology.
Medical Waste - All wastes from hospitals, clinics, or other health
care facilities ("Red Bag Waste") that contain or have come into
contact with diseased tissues or infectious microorganisms.
Also referred to as infectious waste which is hazardous
waste with infectious characteristics, including:
contaminated animal waste, human blood and blood products,
pathological waste, and discarded sharps (needles,
scalpels, or broken medical instruments).
Microorganisms - Bacteria, yeasts, simple fungi, algae, protozoans,
and a number of other organisms that are microscopic in size.
Most are beneficial but some produce disease.
Others are involved in composting and sewage treatment.
Milligrams/liter (mg/l) - A measure of concentration used in the
measurement of fluids. Mg/l is the most common way to present a
concentration in water and is roughly equivalent
to parts per million.
Minimization - Measures or techniques that reduce the amount of
wastes generated during industrial production processes; this
term also is applied to recycling and other
efforts to reduce the volume of waste going
to landfills. This term is interchangeable
with waste reduction and waste minimization.
Mitigation - Measures taken to reduce adverse effects on the
environment.
Monitoring Well - A well used to take water quality samples or to
measure ground water levels.
Morbidity - Rate of incidence of disease.
Mortality - Death rate.
Mutagenicity - The property of a chemical that causes the genetic
characteristics of an organism to change in such a way that
future generations are permanently affected.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) - Maximum air
pollutant standards that EPA set under the Clean Air Act for
attainment by each state. The standards were
to be achieved by 1975, along with state
implementation plans to control industrial
sources in each state.
National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP)
- Emission standards set by EPA for an air pollutant not covered
by NAAQS that may cause an increase in deaths or
serious, irreversible, or incapacitating illness.
Primary standards are designed to protect human
health, secondary standards to protect public welfare.
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) - The
primary permitting program under the Clean Water Act which
regulates all discharges to surface water.
National Priorities List (NPL) - A list of sites, many nominated
by the states, for hazardous waste cleanup under Superfund.
National Response Center (NRC) - The primary communications center
operated by the U.S. Coast Guard to receive reports of major
chemical and oil spills and other hazardous
substances into the environment. The NRC
immediately relays reports to a predesignated
federal On-Scene Coordinator.
National Response Team (NRT) - Representatives from 15 federal
agencies with interests and expertise in various aspects of
emergency response to pollution incidents. EPA
serves as chair and the U.S. Coast Guard serves
as vice-chair. The NRT is primarily a national
planning, policy, and coordinating body and does
not respond directly to incidents. The NRT
provides policy guidance prior to an incident and
assistance as requested by a federal On-Scene
Coordinator via a Regional Response Team during
an incident. NRT assistance usually takes the
form of technical advice, access to additional
resources or equipment, or coordination with
other RRTs.
National Strike Force (NSF) - Operated by the U.S. Coast Guard, the
NSF is composed of three strategically located teams
(Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts) who back up the
federal On-Scene Coordinator. These teams are
extensively trained and equipped to respond to major
oil spills and chemical releases. These capabilities
are especially suited to incidents in a marine
environment but also include site assessment, safety,
action plan development, and documentation for both
inland and coastal zone incidents. The NSF
Coordination Center is at Elizabeth City, NC.
Neutralization - The chemical process in which the acidic or basic
characteristics of a fluid are changed to those of water (pH =
7).
Non-Attainment - Refers to areas of the United States that have not
met air standards for human health by deadlines set in the
Clean Air Act.
Non-Contact Cooling Water - Water used for cooling which does not
come into direct contact with any raw material, product,
by-product, or waste.
Non-Degradation - A policy that forbids any lowering of naturally
occurring environmental quality regardless of established health
standards.
Nonpoint Source - Any source of pollution not associated with a
distinct discharge point. Includes sources such as rainwater,
runoff from agricultural lands, industrial sites,
parking lots, and timber operations, as well as
escaping gases from pipes and fittings.
No Observed Adverse Effect Level or No Observed Effect Level
(NOAEL) or (NOEL) A level of exposure which does not cause
observable harm.
Odor Threshold - The lowest concentration of a substance in air
that can be smelled. Odor thresholds are highly variable
because of the differing ability of individuals
to detect odors.
On-Scene Coordinator (OSC) - The federal official responsible for
the coordination of a hazardous materials response action, as
specified in individual Regional Contingency Plans. OSCs
are predesignated by EPA for inland areas and by the U.S.
Coast Guard for coastal areas. The OSC coordinates all
federal containment, removal, and disposal efforts and
resources during a pollution incident. The OSC is the point
of contact for the coordination of federal efforts with
those of the local response community. The OSC has access
to extensive federal resources, including the National
Strike Force, the Environmental Response Team, and
Scientific Support Coordinators. The OSC can be a source of
valuable support and information to the community.
On Site - On the same, or adjacent, property.
Organically Grown - Food, feed crops, and livestock grown within an
intentionally-diversified, self-sustaining agro-ecosystem. In
practice, farmers build up nutrients in the soil using compost,
agricultural wastes, and cover crops instead of synthetically
derived fertilizers to increase productivity, rotate crops, weed
mechanically, and reduce dramatically their dependence on the
entire family of pesticides. Farmers must be certified to
characterize crops as organically grown and can only use
approved natural and synthetic biochemicals, agents, and
materials for three consecutive years prior to harvest.
Livestock must be fed a diet that includes grains and forages
that have been organically grown and cannot receive hormones,
sub-therapeutic antibiotics, or other growth promoters.
Organism - Any living being, whether plant, mammal, bird, insect,
reptile, fish, crustacean, aquatic or estuarine animal, or
bacterium.
Oxidant - A substance containing oxygen that reacts chemically with
other materials to produce new substances. Oxidants are the
primary ingredients in smog.
Ozone - Three molecule oxygen compound (O3) found in two layers of
the earth's atmosphere. One layer of beneficial ozone occurs
at seven to 18 miles above the surface and
shields the earth from ultraviolet light. Several
holes in this protective layer have been
documented by scientists. Ozone also concentrates
at the surface as a result of reactions between
by-products of fossil fuel combustion and
sunlight, having harmful health effects.
Particulates - Liquid or solid particles such as dust, smoke, mist,
or smog found in air emissions.
Parts per billion (ppb) - One ppb is comparable to one kernel of
corn in a filled, 45-foot silo, 16 feet in diameter.
Parts per million (ppm) - One ppm is comparable to one drop of
gasoline in a tankful of gas (full-size car).
Parts per trillion (ppt) - One ppt is comparable to one drop in a
swimming pool covering the area of a football field 43 ft.
deep.
Pathogen - A bacterial organism typically found in the intestinal
tracts of mammals, capable of producing disease.
Performance Bond - Cash or securities, deposited before a landfill
operating permit is issued, which are held to ensure that all
requirements for operating a landfill are performed.
The money is returned to the owner after proper
closure of the landfill is complete. If contamination
or other problems appear at any time during operation,
or upon closure, and are not addressed, the owner must
forfeit all or part of the performance bond which is
then used to cover costs of cleanup.
Permeability - The ease with which water, or other fluid, passes
through a substance.
Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) - Workplace exposure limits for
contaminants established by OSHA.
Permit - A legal document issued by state and/or federal
authorities containing a detailed description of the proposed
activity and operating procedures as
well as appropriate requirements and
regulations. The permitting process
includes provisions for public
comment.
Pesticide - Substances intended to repel, kill, or control any
species designated a "pest" including weeds, insects, rodents,
fungi, bacteria, or other organisms. The
family of pesticides includes herbicides,
insecticides, rodenticides, fungicides, and
bactericides.
pH - The measure of acidity or alkalinity of a chemical solution,
from 0þ14. Anything neutral, for example, has a pH of 7. Acids
have a pH less than 7, bases (alkaline) greater than
7.
Plume - A concentration of contaminants in air, soil, or water
usually extending from a distinct source.
Point Source - A stationary location or fixed facility such as an
industry or municipality that discharges pollutants into air
or surface water through pipes, ditches, lagoons,
wells, or stacks; a single identifiable source
such as a ship or a mine.
Pollution - Any substances in water, soil, or air that degrade the
natural quality of the environment, offend the senses of
sight, taste, or smell, or cause a health hazard. The
usefulness of the natural resource is usually impaired
by the presence of pollutants and contaminants.
Pollution Prevention - Actively identifying equipment, processes,
and activities which generate excessive wastes or use toxic
chemicals and then making substitutions,
alterations, or product improvements. Conserving
energy and minimizing wastes are pollution
prevention concepts used in manufacturing,
sustainable agriculture, recycling, and clean
air/clean water technologies.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) - A group of toxic, persistent
chemicals used in electrical transformers and capacitors for
insulating purposes, and in gas pipeline systems
as a lubricant. The sale and new use of PCBs were
banned by law in 1979.
Potable Water - Raw or treated water that is considered safe to
drink.
Potentially Responsible Party (PRP) - Any individual or company
that is potentially responsible for or has contributed to a
spill or other contamination at a Superfund site.
Whenever possible, EPA requires PRPs to clean up sites
they have contaminated.
Pretreatment - Methods used by industry and other non-household
sources of wastewater to remove, reduce, or alter the pollutants
in wastewater before discharge to a POTW.
Primary Treatment - First stage of wastewater treatment in which
solids are removed by screening and settling.
Process Wastewater - Any water which comes into contact with any
raw material, product, by-product, or waste.
Public Comment Period - The time allowed for the members of an
affected community to express views and concerns regarding an
action proposed to be taken by EPA, such as
a rulemaking, permit, or Superfund remedy
selection.
Public Water System - Any water system that regularly supplies
piped water to the public for consumption, serving at least an
average of 25 individuals per day for at
least 60 days per year, or has at least 15
service connections.
Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTW) - A municipal or public
service district sewage treatment system.
Quality Assurance/Quality Control - A system of procedures, checks,
audits, and corrective actions to ensure that all technical,
operational, monitoring, and reporting activities
are of the highest achievable quality.
Quench Tank - A water-filled tank used to cool incinerator residue
or hot materials from industrial processes.
Radioactive Waste - Any waste that emits energy as rays, waves, or
streams of energetic particles. Radioactive materials are often
mixed with hazardous waste, usually from nuclear
reactors, research institutions, or hospitals.
Radon - A colorless, naturally occurring gas formed by radioactive
decay of radium atoms. Radon accumulating in basements and
other areas of buildings without proper ventilation
has been identified as a leading cause of lung cancer.
Raw Water - Intake water prior to any treatment or use.
Reactivity - Refers to those hazardous wastes that are normally
unstable and readily undergo violent chemical change but do
not explode.
Receiving Waters - A river, lake, ocean, stream, or other body of
water into which wastewater or treated effluent is discharged.
Recharge Area - An area of land where there is a net annual
transfer of water from the surface to ground water; where
rainwater soaks through the earth to reach
an aquifer.
Recycling - Reusing materials and objects in original or changed
forms rather than discarding them as wastes.
Record of Decision (ROD) - A public document that explains which
cleanup alternative was selected for a Superfund site.
Red Bag Waste - see definition for Medical Waste.
Reference Dose (RfD) - The particular concentration of a chemical
that is known to cause health problems. A standard that also
may be referred to as the acceptable daily
intake.
Refine - To remove impurities.
Regional Response Team (RRT) - There are 13 RRTs, one for each of
10 federal regions, plus one for Alaska, one for the Caribbean,
and one for the Pacific Basin. Each RRT maintains a
Regional Contingency Plan and has state and federal
government representation. EPA and the U.S. Coast
Guard cochair the RRTs. Like the NRT, RRTs are
planning, policy, and coordinating bodies and do not
respond directly to pollution incidents but do provide
assistance when requested by the federal On-Scene
Coordinator. RRTs also provide assistance to SERCs and
LEPCs in local preparedness, planning, and training
for emergency response.
Registration - Formal listing with EPA of a new pesticide before
sale or distribution. EPA is responsible for pre-market
licensing of pesticides on the basis of data
demonstrating no unreasonable adverse health or
environmental effects when applied according to
approved label directions.
Release - Any spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting,
emptying, discharging, injecting, escaping, leaching, dumping,
or disposing into the environment of a hazardous or
toxic chemical, or extremely hazardous substance.
Remedial Action - The actual construction or clean-up phase of a
Superfund site cleanup.
Reportable Quantity (RQ) - Amount of a hazardous or extremely
hazardous substance that, if released into the environment, must
be reported to the NRC, the SERC, and the
LEPC under Section 304 of EPCRA.
Residual Risk - The risk associated with pollutants after the
application of maximum achievable control technology or MACT.
Resource Recovery - The extraction of useful materials or energy
from solid waste. Such materials can include paper, glass, and
metals that can be reprocessed for re-use. Resource
recovery also is employed in pollution prevention.
Responsiveness Summary - A summary of oral and written comments
received by EPA during a public comment period on key documents
or actions proposed to be taken, and EPAþs
response to those comments.
Risk - A measure of the chance that damage to life, health,
property, or the environment will occur.
Risk Assessment - A process to determine the increased risk from
exposure to environmental pollutants together with an
estimate of the severity of impact. Risk
assessments use specific chemical information
plus risk factors.
Risk Communication - The process of exchanging information about
levels or significance of health or environmental risk.
Risk Factor - A characteristic (e.g., race, sex, age, obesity) or
variable (e.g., smoking, exposure) associated with increased
chance of toxic effects. Some standard risk
factors used in general risk assessment
calculations include average breathing rates,
average weight, and average human life span.
Rodenticide - A pesticide or other agent used to kill rats and
other rodents or to prevent them from damaging food, crops,
or forage.
Sanitary Water - Water discharged from restrooms, showers, food
preparation facilities, or other nonindustrial operations;
also known as "gray water."
Scientific Support Coordinators (SSC) - Scientific and technical
advisors in coastal and marine areas from the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) who
serve as members of the federal On-Scene
Coordinator's staff. Their capabilities include
contingency planning, surface/subsurface
trajectory forecasting and hindcasting, resource
risk analysis, and liaison to other scientists.
Scrubbing - A common method of reducing stack air emissions;
removal of impurities by spraying a liquid that concentrates the
impurities into waste.
Secondary Treatment - The second step taken by a Publicly Owned
Treatment Works in which bacteria consume the organic parts of
the waste. This treatment usually removes about
90% of all solids and oxygen-demanding
substances.
Sediment - Topsoil, sand, and minerals washed from the land into
water, usually after rain or snow melt. Sediments collecting in
rivers, reservoirs, and harbors can destroy fish
and wildlife habitat and cloud the water so that
sunlight cannot reach aquatic plants. Loss of
topsoil from farming, mining, or building
activities can be prevented through a variety of
erosion-control techniques.
Septic tank - An underground tank to collect wastes from homes that
are not connected to a municipal sewer system. Waste goes from
the home to the tank and is decomposed by bacteria.
Solids and dead bacteria settle to the bottom as
sludge while the liquid portion flows into the ground
through drains. While properly placed and maintained
septic systems can effectively treat domestic
wastewater, others are a major source of ground water
and surface water pollution.
Sewer - A channel or conduit that carries wastewater and stormwater
to a treatment plant or receiving waters. "Sanitary" sewers
carry household, industrial, and commercial waste. "Storm"
sewers carry runoff from rain or snow.
Siting - Choosing a location for a facility.
Sludge - The residue (solids and some water) produced as a result
of raw or wastewater treatment.
Slurry - A pumpable mixture of solids and fluid.
Small Quantity Generator (SQG) - Persons or facilities that produce
220þ2,200 pounds per month of hazardous waste. SQGs are required
to keep more records than conditionally exempt generators. SQGs
may include automotive shops, dry cleaners, photographic
developers, and a host of other small enterprises. SQGs comprise
by far the vast majority of hazardous waste generators.
Smog - Dust, smoke, or chemical fumes that pollute the air and make
hazy, unhealthy conditions (literally, the word is a blend of
smoke and fog). Automobile, truck, bus, and other vehicle
exhausts and particulates are usually trapped close to the
ground, obscuring visibility and contributing to a number
of respiratory problems.
Solid Waste - As defined under RCRA, any solid, semi-solid, liquid,
or contained gaseous materials discarded from industrial,
commercial, mining, or agricultural operations,
and from community activities. Solid waste
includes garbage, construction debris, commercial
refuse, sludge from water supply or waste
treatment plants, or air pollution control
facilities, and other discarded materials.
Solid Waste Management Facility - Any disposal or resource recovery
system; any system, program, or facility for resource
conservation; any facility for the treatment of
solid wastes.
Source Reduction - The design, manufacture, purchase, or use of
materials (such as products and packaging) to reduce the amount
or toxicity of garbage generated. Source
reduction can help reduce waste disposal and
handling charges because the costs of recycling,
municipal composting, landfilling, and combustion
are avoided. Source reduction conserves resources
and reduces pollution.
Source Separation - Organizing materials by type (such as paper,
metal, plastic, and glass) so that these items can be recycled
instead of thrown away. For example, many of us
separate these items from the rest of our
household and office wastes. Industries also
organize materials in this fashion.
Standard Industrial Classification Code (SIC Code) - A method of
grouping industries with similar products or services and
assigning codes to these groups.
State Emergency Response Commission (SERC) - The agency appointed
by the Governor to oversee the administration of EPCRA at the
state level. This commission designates and
appoints members to LEPCs and reviews emergency
response plans for cities and counties.
Surface Impoundment - Treatment, storage, or disposal of liquid
hazardous wastes in ponds.
Surface Water - All water naturally open to the atmosphere (rivers,
lakes, reservoirs, ponds, streams, seas, estuaries) and all
springs, wells, or other collectors directly
influenced by surface water.
Surfactant - A detergent compound that promotes lathering.
Suspended Solids - Solids that either float on the surface or are
suspended in water, wastewater, or other liquids.
Sustainable Agriculture - Environmentally friendly methods of
farming that allow the production of crops or livestock without
damage to the farm as an ecosystem,
including effects on soil, water supplies,
biodiversity, or other surrounding natural
resources. The concept of sustainable
agriculture is an "intergenerational" one in
which we pass on a conserved or improved
natural resource base instead of one which
has been depleted or polluted. Terms often
associated with farms or ranches that are
self-sustaining include "low-input,"
organic, "ecological," "biodynamic," and
"permaculture."
Synergism - The cooperative action of two or more organisms
producing a greater total result than the sum of their
independent effects; chemicals or muscles in
synergy enhance the effectiveness of one
another beyond what an individual could have
produced.
Technical Assistance Grant (TAG) - EPA grants of up to $50,000 for
citizens' groups to obtain assistance in interpreting
information related to cleanups at Superfund sites.
Grants are used by such groups to hire technical
advisors to help them understand the site-related
information for the duration of response activities.
Ten-to-the-Minus-Sixth (10-6) - Used in risk assessments to refer
to the probability of risk. Literally means a chance of one
in a million. Similarly, ten-to-the-minus-fifth means
a probability of one in 100,000, and so on.
Teratogen - A substance capable of causing birth defects.
Tertiary Treatment - An enhancement of normal sewage treatment
operations to provide water of potable quality using further
chemical and physical treatment; the highest drinking water
standard achieved in the U.S.
Threshold Limit Value (TLV) - The concentration of an airborne
substance that a healthy person can be exposed to for a
40-hour work week without adverse effect; a
workplace exposure standard.
Tolerance - Permissible residue level for pesticides in raw
agricultural produce and processed foods. Whenever a pesticide is
registered for use on a food or feed crop,
a tolerance must be established. EPA
establishes the tolerance levels, which are
enforced by the Food and Drug Administration
and the Department of Agriculture.
Tonnage - The amount of waste that a landfill accepts, usually
expressed as tons per month. The rate at which a landfill
accepts waste is limited by the landfill's
permit.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) - The quantity of dissolved material
in a given volume of water.
Toxic Chemical - Substances that can cause severe illness,
poisoning, birth defects, disease, or death when ingested,
inhaled, or absorbed by living organisms.
Toxic Cloud - An airborne mass of gases, vapors, fumes, or aerosols
of toxic materials.
Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) - A database of annual toxic releases
from certain manufacturers compiled from EPCRA Section 313
reports. Manufacturers must report annually to
EPA and the states the amounts of almost 350
toxic chemicals and 22 chemical categories that
they release directly to air, water, or land,
inject underground, or transfer to off-site
facilities. EPA compiles these reports and makes
the information available to the public under the
"Community Right-to-Know" portion of the law.
Toxic Substance - A chemical or mixture that can cause illness,
death, disease, or birth defects. The quantities and exposures
necessary to cause these effects can vary widely.
Many toxic substances are pollutants and
contaminants in the environment.
Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) - A test
designed to determine whether a waste is hazardous or
requires treatment to become less
hazardous; also can be used to monitor
treatment techniques for
effectiveness.
Toxicity Testing - Biological testing (usually with an
invertebrate, fish, or small mammal) to determine the adverse
effects, if any, of a chemical,
compound, or effluent.
Trade Secret - Any confidential formula, pattern, process, device,
information, or set of data that is used in a business to give
the owner a competitive advantage. Such
information may be excluded from public review.
Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facility (TSD) - Refers to any
facility which treats, stores, or disposes of hazardous wastes.
Ultraviolet Rays - Radiation from the sun in the invisible portion
of the spectrum. Some UV rays (UV-A) enhance plant life and
are useful in certain medical and dental procedures.
Other UV rays (UV-B) can cause skin cancer or other
tissue damage. The ozone layer in the atmosphere
partly shields us from ultraviolet rays reaching the
earthþs surface.
Underground Injection Control (UIC) - A program under the Safe
Drinking Water Act that regulates the use of wells to pump
fluids underground.
Underground Storage Tank (UST) - A tank and any underground piping
connected to the tank that has 10% or more of its volume
(including pipe volume) beneath the surface of the ground. USTs
are designed to hold gasoline, other petroleum products, and
hazardous materials.
Vapor - The gas given off by substances that are solids or liquids
at ordinary atmospheric pressure and temperatures.
Vapor Dispersion - The movement of vapor clouds or plumes in the
air due to wind, gravity, spreading, and mixing.
Vapor Recovery System - A system by which the volatile gases from
gasoline are captured instead of being released into the
atmosphere. Recovery systems may be required for
gasoline stations in some cities and other
non-attainment areas.
Vent - The connection and piping through which gases enter and exit
a piece of equipment.
Volatile - Any substance which evaporates quickly.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) - Any organic compound which
evaporates readily to the atmosphere. VOCs contribute
significantly to photochemical smog
production and certain health problems.
Wasteload Allocation (WLA) - The portion of a strea's total
assimilative capacity assigned to an individual discharger.
Wastewater Treatment Plant - A facility containing a series of
tanks, screens, filters, and other processes by which pollutants
are removed from water. Most treatments include
chlorination to attain safe drinking water
standards.
Water Quality Standard (WQS) - The combination of a designated use
and the maximum concentration of a pollutant which will
protect that use for any given body of water. For
example, in a trout stream, the concentration of iron
should not exceed 1 mg/l.
Water Table - The boundary between the saturated and unsaturated
zones. Generally, the level to which water will rise in a
well (except artesian wells).
Wellhead Protection Area - A protected surface and subsurface zone
surrounding a well or well field that supplies a public water
system and through which contaminants could
likely reach well water.
Wetlands - Areas that are soaked or flooded by surface or ground
water frequently enough or for sufficient duration to support
plants, birds, animals, and aquatic life.
Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes,
bogs, estuaries, and other inland and
coastal areas, and are federally protected.
Wetlands frequently serve as
recharge/discharge areas and are known as
"nature's kidneys" since they help purify
water. Wetlands also have been referred to
as natural sponges that absorb flood waters,
functioning like natural tubs to collect
overflow. Wetlands are important wildlife
habitats, breeding grounds, and nurseries
because of their biodiversity. Many
endangered species as well as countless
estuarine and marine fish and shellfish,
mammals, waterfowl, and other migratory
birds use wetland habitat for growth,
reproduction, food, and shelter. Wetlands
are among the most fertile, natural
ecosystems in the world since they produce
great volumes of food (plant material).
Wildlife Refuge - An area designated for the protection of wild
animals, within which hunting and fishing are either prohibited
or strictly controlled.
Wood Treatment Facility - An industrial facility which treats
lumber and other wood products for outdoor use. The process
involves use of chromated copper arsenate
and other toxic chemicals which are
regulated as hazardous materials.
Xenobiotic - A term for non-natural or man-made substances found in
the environment (i.e., synthetics, plastics).
Z-list - OSHA's Toxic and Hazardous Substances Tables (Z-1, Z-2,
and Z-3) of air contaminants; any material found on these tables
is considered hazardous.
Zone of Saturation - The layer beneath the surface of the land in
which all openings are filled with water.
MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
If you are interested in becoming active in environmental, health,
and community safety issues, you will need to understand many of
the following federal laws. These laws, and others enacted by
states, have various requirements and are enforced by various
agencies. We have presented a brief description of the intent of
each law. For more details, you should obtain a copy from your
local library, state library, or the relevant federal or state
agency. Federal and state officials, community organizations, and
interest groups will help you gain a working knowledge of these
laws.
THE CLEAN AIR ACT (CAA)
42 U.S.C. s/s 7401 et seq. (1970)
The Clean Air Act is the comprehensive federal law which
regulates air emissions from area, stationary, and mobile
sources. This law authorizes the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) to protect public health and the environment. The goal
of the Act was to set and achieve NAAQS in every state by 1975.
This setting of maximum pollutant standards was coupled with
directing the states to develop state implementation plans
(SIPs) applicable to appropriate industrial sources in the
state.
The Act was amended in 1977 primarily to set new goals (dates)
for achieving attainment of NAAQS since many areas of the
country had failed to meet the deadlines. The 1990 amendments to
the Clean Air Act in large part were intended to meet
unaddressed or insufficiently addressed problems such as acid
rain, ground level ozone, stratospheric ozone depletion, and air
toxics.
THE CLEAN WATER ACT (CWA)
33 U.S.C. s/s 121 et seq. (1977)
The Clean Water Act is a 1977 amendment to the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act of 1972, which set the basic structure for
regulating discharges of pollutants to waters of the United
States. This law gave EPA the authority to set effluent
standards on an industry-by-industry basis (technology-based)
and continued the requirements to set water quality standards
for all contaminants in surface waters. The CWA makes it
unlawful for any person to discharge any pollutant from a point
source into navigable waters unless a permit (NPDES) is obtained
under the Act. The 1977 amendments focused on toxic pollutants.
In 1987, the CWA was reauthorized and again focused on toxic
substances, authorized citizen suit provisions, and funded
sewage treatment plants (POTWs) under the Construction Grants
Program.
The CWA provides for the delegation by EPA of many permitting,
administrative, and enforcement aspects of the law to state
governments. In states with the authority to implement CWA
programs, EPA still retains oversight responsibilities.
THE COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE, COMPENSATION, and
LIABILITY ACT (CERCLA or SUPERFUND)
42 U.S.C. s/s 9601 et seq. (1980)
CERCLA (pronounced SERK-la) provides a federal "Superfund" to
clean up uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites as well
as accidents, spills, and other emergency releases of pollutants
and contaminants into the environment. Through the Act, EPA was
given power to seek out those parties responsible for any
release and assure their cooperation in the cleanup. EPA cleans
up orphan sites when potentially responsible parties (PRPs)
cannot be identified or located, or when they fail to act.
Through various enforcement tools, EPA obtains private party
cleanup through orders, consent decrees, and other small party
settlements. EPA also recovers costs from financially viable
individuals and companies once a response action has been
completed.
EPA is authorized to implement the Act in all 50 states and U.S.
territories. Superfund site identification, monitoring, and
response activities in states are coordinated through the state
environmental protection or waste management agencies.
THE EMERGENCY PLANNING & COMMUNITY RIGHT-TO-KNOW ACT (EPCRA)
42 U.S.C. 11011 et seq. (1986)
Also known as Title III of SARA, EPCRA was enacted by Congress
as the national legislation on community safety. This law was
designed to help local communities protect public health,
safety, and the environment from chemical hazards.
To implement EPCRA, Congress required each state to appoint a
State Emergency Response Commission (SERC). The SERCs were
required to divide their states into Emergency Planning
Districts and to name a Local Emergency Planning Committee
(LEPC) for each district. Broad representation by fire fighters,
health officials, government and media representatives,
community groups, industrial facilities, and emergency managers
ensures that all necessary elements of the planning process are
represented.
THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT
7 U.S.C. 136; 16 U.S.C. 460 et seq. (1973)
The Endangered Species Act provides a program for the
conservation of threatened and endangered plants and animals and
the habitats in which they are found. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service (FWS) of the Department of Interior maintains the list
of 632 endangered species (326 are plants) and 190 threatened
species (78 are plants). Species include birds, insects, fish,
reptiles, mammals, crustaceans, flowers, grasses, and trees.
Anyone can petition FWS to include a species on this list or to
prevent some activity, such as logging, mining, or dam building.
The law prohibits any action, administrative or real, that
results in a "taking" of a listed species, or adversely affects
habitat. Likewise, import, export, interstate, and foreign
commerce of listed species are all prohibited.
EPA's decision to register a pesticide is based in part on the
risk of adverse effects on endangered species as well as
environmental fate (how a pesticide will effect habitat). Under
FIFRA, EPA can issue emergency suspensions of certain pesticides
to cancel or restrict their use if an endangered species will be
adversely affected. Under a new program, EPA, FWS, and USDA are
distributing hundreds of county bulletins which include habitat
maps, pesticide use limitations, and other actions required to
protect listed species.
In addition, we are enforcing regulations under various
treaties, including the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The U.S. and
70 other nations have established procedures to regulate the
import and export of imperiled species and their habitat. The
Fish and Wildlife Service works with U.S. Customs agents to stop
the illegal trade of species, including the Black Rhino, African
elephants, tropical birds and fish, orchids, and various corals.
THE FEDERAL INSECTICIDE, FUNGICIDE AND RODENTICIDE ACT (FIFRA)
7 U.S.C. s/s 135 et seq. (1972)
The primary focus of FIFRA was to provide federal control of
pesticide distribution, sale, and use. EPA was given authority
under FIFRA not only to study the consequences of pesticide
usage but also to require users (farmers, utility companies, and
others) to register when purchasing pesticides. Through later
amendments to the law, users also must take exams for
certification as applicators of pesticides. All pesticides used
in the U.S. must be registered (licensed) by EPA. Registration
assures that pesticides will be properly labeled and that, if
used in accordance with specifications, will not cause
unreasonable harm to the environment.
THE (FEDERAL) FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT (FOIA)
U.S.C. s/s 552 (1966)
The Freedom of Information Act provides specifically that "any
person" can make requests for government information. Citizens
who make requests are not required to identify themselves or
explain why they want the information they have requested. The
position of Congress in passing FOIA was that the workings of
government are "for and by the people" and that the benefits of
government information should be made available to everyone.
All branches of the federal government must adhere to the
provisions of FOIA with certain restrictions for work in
progress (early drafts), enforcement confidential information,
classified documents, and national security information.
THE NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT (NEPA)
42 U.S.C. s/s 4321 et seq. (1969)
The National Environmental Policy Act was one of the first laws
ever written that establishes the broad national framework for
protecting our environment. NEPA's basic policy is to assure
that all branches of government give proper consideration to the
environment prior to undertaking any major federal action which
significantly affects the environment. NEPA requirements are
invoked when airports, buildings, military complexes, highways,
parkland purchases, and other such federal activities are
proposed. Environmental Assessments (EAs) and Environmental
Impact Statements (EISs), which are assessments of the
likelihood of impacts from alternative courses of action, are
required from all federal agencies and are the most visible NEPA
requirements.
THE OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT
29 U.S.C. 61 et seq. (1970)
Congress passed the Occupational and Safety Health Act to ensure
worker and workplace safety. Their goal was to make sure
employers provide their workers a place of employment free from
recognized hazards to safety and health, such as exposure to
toxic chemicals, excessive noise levels, mechanical dangers,
heat or cold stress, or unsanitary conditions. In order to
establish standards for workplace health and safety, the Act
also created the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) as the research institution for the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). OSHA is a division of
the U.S. Department of Labor which oversees the administration
of the Act and enforces federal standards in all 50 states.
THE POLLUTION PREVENTION ACT
42 U.S.C. 13101 and 13102, s/s 6602 etseq. (1990)
The Pollution Prevention Act focused industry, government, and
public attention on reducing the amount of pollution produced
through cost-effective changes in production, operation, and raw
materials use. Opportunities for source reduction are often not
realized because existing regulations, and the industrial
resources required for compliance, focus on treatment and
disposal. Source reduction is fundamentally different and more
desirable than waste management or pollution control. Pollution
prevention also includes other practices that increase
efficiency in the use of energy, water, or other natural
resources, and protect our resource base through conservation.
Practices include recycling, source reduction, and sustainable
agriculture.
THE RESOURCE CONSERVATION and RECOVERY ACT (RCRA)
42 U.S.C. s/s 321 et seq. (1976)
RCRA (pronounced "rick-rah") gave EPA the authority to control
hazardous waste from "cradle-to-grave." This includes the
generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of
hazardous waste. RCRA also set forth a framework for the
management of non-hazardous solid wastes.
The 1986 amendments to RCRA enabled EPA to address environmental
problems that could result from underground tanks storing
petroleum and other hazardous substances. RCRA focuses only on
active and future facilities and does not address abandoned or
historical sites (see CERCLA).
HSWA (pronounced "hiss-wa") - The federal Hazardous and Solid
Waste Amendments. The 1984 amendments to RCRA which required
phasing out land disposal of hazardous waste. Some of the other
mandates of this strict law include increased enforcement
authority for EPA, more stringent hazardous waste management
standards, and a comprehensive underground storage tank program.
THE SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT (SDWA)
43 U.S.C. s/s 300f et seq. (1974)
The Safe Drinking Water Act was established to protect the
quality of drinking water in the U.S. This law focuses on all
waters actually or potentially designated for drinking use,
whether from above ground or underground sources. The Act
authorized EPA to establish safe standards of purity and
required all owners or operators of public water systems to
comply with primary (health-related) standards. State
governments, which assume this power from EPA, also encourage
attainment of secondary standards (nuisance-related).
THE SUPERFUND AMENSMENTS and REAUTHORIZATION ACT (SARA)
42 U.S.C. 9601 et seq. (1986)
The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986
reauthorized CERCLA to continue cleanup activities around the
country. Several site-specific amendments, definitions,
clarifications, and technical requirements were added to the
legislation, including additional enforcement authorities.
Title III of SARA also authorized the Emergency Planning and
Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA).
THE TOXIC SUBSTANCES CONTROL ACT (TSCA)
15 U.S.C. s/s 2601 et seq. (1976)
The Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 was enacted by Congress
to test, regulate, and screen all chemicals produced or imported
into the U.S. Many thousands of chemicals and their compounds
are developed each year with unknown toxic or dangerous
characteristics. To prevent tragic consequences, TSCA requires
that any chemical that reaches the consumer market place be
tested for possible toxic effects prior to commercial
manufacture.
Any existing chemical that poses health and environmental
hazards is tracked and reported under TSCA. Procedures also are
authorized for corrective action under TSCA in cases of cleanup
of toxic materials contamination. TSCA supplements other federal
statutes, including the Clean Air Act and the Toxic Release
Inventory under EPCRA.
GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
Throughout this handbook we have referred to organizations,
agencies, and offices to contact for further information. The
following is a list of several of those organizations and agencies
dealing with health and environmental protection. For each
citation, a current address and phone number are provided, as well
as a brief notation of responsibilities and/or interests of the
group. This list is provided for quick reference when specific
issues arise but is by no means complete.
Federal Agencies for Health & Environmental Protection
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, DC 20460
(202) 260-2080
Public Information Center
open 9 AM to 4:30 PM, Monday þ Friday
Responsible for: working with state and local governments to
control and prevent pollution in areas of solid and hazardous
waste, pesticides, water, air, drinking water, and toxic and
radioactive substances. When contacting EPA, we suggest starting
with your Regional Office. If the Regional Office is unable to
assist you, your questions may be directed to EPA Headquarters
in Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA regional offices
Region 1
U.S. EPA (Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine,
New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont)
JFK Federal Building
1 Congress Street
Boston, MA 02203
617/565-3420
Region 2
U.S. EPA (New Jersey, New York, Puerto
Rico, Virgin Islands)
26 Federal Plaza
New York, NY 10278
212/264-2657
Region 3
U.S. EPA (Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania,
Virginia, West Virginia, District of Columbia)
841 Chestnut Building
Philadelphia, PA 19107
215/597-2176
Region 4
U.S. EPA (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi,
North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee)
345 Courtland Street, NE
Atlanta, GA 30365
404/347-3004
Region 5
U.S. EPA (Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,
Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin)
77 West Jackson
Chicago, IL 60604
312/353-2000
Region 6
U.S. EPA (Arkansas, Louisiana,
New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas)
1445 Ross Avenue
Dallas, TX 75202
214/655-6444
Region 7
U.S. EPA (Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska)
726 Minnesota Avenue
Kansas City, KS 66401
913/551-7000
Region 8
U.S. EPA (Colorado, Montana, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Utah, Wyoming)
999 18th Street
Denver, CO 80202-2466
303/293-1603
Region 9
U.S. EPA (Arizona, California, Hawaii,
Nevada, Guam, American Samoa)
75 Hawthorne Street
San Francisco, CA 94105
415/744-1305
Region 10
U.S. EPA (Idaho, Washington,
Oregon, Alaska)
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle, WA 98101
206/553-1200
U.S. DEPARTMENT of JUSTICE (DOJ)
10th and Constitution Ave., N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20530
202/514-2007
Responsible for: all enforcement actions that must be filed in
court, and organizing evidentiary and other documents to prepare
for and conduct litigation. Litigation includes the protection,
use, and development of the nation's natural resources and
public lands, wildlife protection, Indian rights and claims,
cleanup of hazardous waste sites, acquisition of private
property for federal use, and defense of environmental
challenges to government programs and activities. DOJ's
Environment and Natural Resources Division is the nation's
environmental lawyer and the largest environmental law firm in
the country.
U.S. DEPARTMENT of TRANSPORTATION (DOT)
400 7th Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20590
202/366-4570
Responsible for: setting standards for safety and providing
funds to plan, construct and operate transportation systems by
rail, highway, air, or water and providing law enforcement and
traffic management services for the nationþs airspace and
waterways. DOT also regulates manufacturers of containers and
transporters of hazardous materials.
U.S. COAST GUARD
2100 2nd St., S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20593
202/267-1587
Responsible for: port safety, maritime law enforcement, boating
safety, search and rescue, aids to navigation, merchant marine
safety, and environmental protection. The Coast Guards works
with EPA on marine protection programs, including regulating the
transportation of hazardous cargoes, oil pollution cleanup, and
marine salvage.
FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY (FEMA)
P.O. Box 70274
Washington, D.C. 20024
202/646-4600
Responsible for: providing a federal focus on emergency
management in the United States. This includes natural disasters
such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, and floods,
technological calamities, and national security crises.
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY (USGS)
12201 Sunrise Valley Drive
Mail Stop 119
Reston, VA 22092
703/648-4460
Responsible for: analyzing the quantity and quality of surface
and ground water and precipitation, and conducting research in
geology and hydrology. Programs include extensive topographic
and land-use mapping, energy and mineral resource assessments,
evaluations of natural disasters, and space exploration.
U.S. DEPARTMENT of HEALTH & HUMAN SERVICES:
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
1600 Clifton Road, N.E.
Building 1, Room 3007
Atlanta, GA 30333
1-800/356-4674
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
1600 Clifton Road, N.E., Building 1
Atlanta, GA 30333
404/639-2888
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR)
1600 Clifton Road, N.E., Building 1
Atlanta, GA 30333
404/639-2888
NIOSH provides research and evaluation studies of occupational
injuries and hazardous substances in the workplace. These criteria
are used by OSHA for setting workplace safety standards. The CDC
tracks and evaluates incidence of disease and performs
epidemiological studies. ATSDR conducts research focused on toxic
substances and their effects on public health. Programs include
health studies, substance-specific research, and maintaining
various disease registries.
U.S. DEPARTMENT of LABOR
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
200 Constitution Ave., N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20210
202/219-8151
Responsible for: issuing standards and rules for safe and
healthful working conditions, tools, equipment, facilities, and
processes. Employers have the general duty of providing their
workers a place of employment free from recognized hazards to
safety and health, and must comply with OSHA standards. OSHA
conducts workplace inspections to assure standards are followed.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
14th and Constitution Ave., N.W., Rm 6013
Washington, D.C. 20230
202/482-6090
Responsible for: environmental satellite and data information,
oceanic and atmospheric research, sustainable development,
coastal management programs, cleanup of oil spills, the National
Weather Service, and the National Marine Fisheries Service.
EPA information numbers
In many situations, a phone call to EPA can provide you with the
information you need to start working with environmental issues.
Below is a list of some of the most useful EPA telephone numbers.
Although numbers change periodically, these were correct at the
time of printing. All telephone numbers are in the Eastern Standard
Time Zone.
general U.S.EPA numbers
Public Information Center
(202) 260-2080
(202) 260-7751
ORD Research Information (Cincinnati)
(513) 569-7562
National Center for Environmental
Publications Information (Cincinnati)
(513) 489-8190
hotlines listed by topic
Acid Rain
(617) 674-7377
Air Control Technology Assistance Center
(919) 541-0800
Air Risk Hotline
(919) 541-0888
Appropriate Technology (energy: DOE)
(800) 428-2525
Asbestos Ombudsman
(800) 368-5888
Drinking Water
(800) 426-4791
Emergency Planning & CommunityRight-to-Know
(800) 535-0202
Environmental Education
(202) 260-4962
Environmental Justice
(800) 962-6215
Ground Water
(202) 260-7786
Hazardous Waste Ombudsman
(800) 262-7937
Indoor Air
(800) 438-4318
National Response Center (U.S. Coast Guard)
(800) 424-8802
Pesticides (health effects, spills)
(800) 858-7378
Pollution Prevention Info. Exchange System
(703) 821-4800
Pollution Prevention Clearinghouse
(202) 260-1023
Radon
(800) 767-7236
RCRA, Superfund, and Underground
Storage Tanks
(800) 424-9346
Small Business
(800) 366-5888
Solid Waste Information Clearinghouse
(800) 677-9424
Storm Water, NPDES Permitting
(703) 821-4823
Stratospheric Ozone Protection (CFCs)
(800) 296-1996
Toxic Substances & Asbestos Information
(202) 554-1404
Transporting Hazardous Materials
(DOT/FEMA)
(800) 752-6367
Waste Water
(800) 624-8301
Wetlands
(800) 832-7828
We Want Your Comments!
Additional copies of this Guide may be obtained from:
U.S. EPA
Public Information Center (3404)
401 M Street, SW
Washington, D.C. 20460
(202) 260-7751
This booklet is intended to help you address environmental issues
that interest you. Help us do a better job by letting us know what
information you need. Questions or suggestions for future revisions
of this Guide can be sent to the Project Manager, mail code
(5502G), or call (703) 603-8984.
